Ruth

The Book of Ruth is a very short book (four chapters) located between Judges and 1 Samuel. It bridges the two stories by centering around the Judge-era character Ruth, the great grandmother of David. Just one problem: Ruth is a Moabite.

The Lord has forbidden exogmy because it leads to apostasy, and yet here we discover that a Moabite is the forebear of the great King David. How is this possible? In a culture that emphasizes the family dynamic so much, how could a story asserts Ruth, a Moabite, is the great grandmother of David?

Rarely does the biblical author name a character if he does not wish to say something about that character. In the book of Ruth we find three women mentioned by name: Naomi, Orpah, and Ruth.

The book of Ruth is a female-centric story and therefore is also a very domestic story. Its core themes are home and household. But Ruth is also a story of alienation. To Israelite society Ruth would initially seem a person of very little importance: a woman, impoverished, widowed, a Moabite. Yet it is she that ultimately is glorified for her fulfillment of the Israelite value of family. Now that there is a congregation that is settled in one place and is devoted to YHWH, it takes an outsider to display the true values that God wishes to see among his people.

The book is set during a famine in the time of the Judges. A Judean named Elimelech takes his wife Naomi and his two sons Mahlon and Chilion down to Moab, presumably because there if food there.

The first two verses of the book center around Elimelech, but by verse 3 the subject changes to Naomi; we are even told that Elimelech is "the husband of" Naomi. The structure of the sentence puts Naomi as the more powerful subject and her husband as the less powerful object. Because Elimelech is spoken of only in reference to Naomi, clearly it is Naomi, a woman, that is the focus of the story. In addition, when Elimelech dies, the biblical author says that Naomi is "left with two sons," neither of whom appears to take responsibility for the family. Naomi now leads the family.

Mahlon and Chilion both take Moabite wives; which God has warned against because exogamy is frequently linked with apostasy (marrying a foreigner will cause a man to worship his wife's gods instead of the Lord). We are not told who married whom, but we are told the names of their wives: Orpah and Ruth. After ten years, both Mahlon and Chilion die, leaving Naomi without any men in her life, just her Moabite daughters-in-law. And without men, the three of them lack the security that men provide. This is especially a problem during a time of famine. However, Naomi hears that the Lord is providing for his people, so she decides to head to Judah and urges her two daughters-in-law to return to their homes (their feminine homes, no less - each to her "mother's house"). Ruth and Orpah insist on following Naomi back to Bethlehem. Naomi's response expresses the practical view: they should not follow her because she has no sons and will never again have sons. It would be impractical for them to follow her because not one of them is possessed by the requisite male.

Orpah returns home, and Naomi tells Ruth to follow, to go back to her people and her gods. But Ruth has found the Israelites and their God to be too wonderful:

Do not press me to leave you
or turn back from following you!
Where you go, I will go;
where you lodge, I will lodge;
your people shall be my people,
and your God my God.
Where you die, I will die -
there I will be buried.
May the Lord do thus and so to me,
and more as well,
if even death parts me from you!
(Ruth 1.16-17)

And so Ruth convinces Naomi to take her along.
When they get back to Bethlehem, Naomi tells the women of the town to call her Mara ("Bitter"), for the Lord has dealt harshly with her by taking away all her men.

Flight and return
Flight and return is a common theme in the Bible, with characters like Abraham and then Israel as a whole going down into a place like Egypt and then coming back up. The character leaves his or her homeland due to a famine, enters a foreign land, and after a time returns to the homeland changed in some way. It would be possible to see Naomi this way, having left the promised land for Moab and returning without any males. But another way to look at it is that Naomi leaves with a group of spiritually and physically weak men - Naomi's sons take Moabite wives and she outlives all the men of the family - and returns with a spiritually and physically strong woman, Ruth. The biblical author in this way undermines the traditional male dominance of Israelite life by asserting the strength of women; it is only Naomi and Ruth that return to the promised land, and Ruth is a convert at that.

This is not to say that the story is completely devoid of strong men. Indeed, the biblical author still asserts the importance of a man's presence in the character Boaz, Naomi's rich kinsman on her husband's side. Boaz is a man of the Lord from his introduction. His first words in the story, spoken to his reapers, are, "The Lord be with you." His reapers in turn bless him: "The Lord bless you."

Ruth has asked her mother-in-law to glean in the field, picking up the sheaves of wheat that the reapers missed as per the Deuteronomical law granting this ability to widows, orphans, and aliens. Ruth's hard work - she has been on her feet all day without resting - and her familial relations cause Boaz to protect her, even calling her "my daughter." He advises her to glean only in his field, promises the men will not bother her, and offers her food and water. Ruth is amazed that a foreigner would be treated so well, to which Boaz responds that he knows what she has done for Naomi, and that she has left her family.

Ruth is treated very well that day. She is offered bread and sour wine at mealtime, and Boaz commands the reapers to let her glean from the standing grain and to intentionally drop bunches from the bundles for Ruth to pick up. In all Ruth gathers an ephah of barley - quite a bit.

Boaz is again blessed, this time by Naomi when she is told of all he has done for Ruth. This is the biblical author's way of letting us know that he is a righteous man; everyone is quick to bless him.

Transactions
A frequent topic of this blog has been the sex-marriage economy, in which women are treated as pieces of property in marriage and family matters. This will be discussed a little later as we come to it. Here we will examine another type of transaction that occurs in Ruth. Chapter 2 saw Ruth working to support Naomi. Chapter 3 sees Naomi work to support Ruth. In this exchange for protection, each woman looks out for the other's best interest in an exchange of services. Naomi's aid comes in playing matchmaker between Ruth and Boaz. She commands Ruth to clean herself up and put on nice clothes to go to Boaz on the threshing floor, where he is spending the night. After he has eaten and drunk, she is to "uncover his feet" and lie down, at which point he will instruct her what to do. ["Feet" in biblical parlance is a euphemism for genitals; Naomi seems to be arranging a marriage.]

Ruth does this, but waits until Boaz is asleep. Boaz wakes with a start in the night and demands to know the name of the woman lying at his "feet." Ruth answers, "I am Ruth, your servant; spread your cloak over your servant, for you are next-of-kin." The symbolic spreading of a cloak over a woman signifies (for obvious reasons) acquiring her for marriage. However, marriage does not seem to be on Boaz's mind. He refers to her twice as "my daughter" and tells her that there is another man who is closer kin than he. He is willing to get married if the other man does not agree, but Boaz seems to want to follow Mosaic law precisely.

Ruth slips out in the morning before anyone could recognize she spent the night, however platonically, with Boaz. As a parting gift he gives her six measures of barley.

The sex-marriage economy
With the economic transaction of property and Ruth, the story logically shifts its focus to Boaz, a male. Boaz meets the kinsman closer to Ruth at the gate of the city, the area of commerce. He informs the kinsman that Naomi is selling a parcel of land that belonged to Abimelech. As per Deuteronomic law, the land should be redeemed by the closest kin member, who happens to be this kinsman. The next in line after him is Boaz.

The kinsman offers to redeem the property, upon which Boaz informs him that Ruth comes with the property, so that Elimelech's name may be passed down (again a piece Deuteronomic legislation. In this society a man's name is tied to his property, so if there is no brother or son to redeem it, it goes to the man's wife, who keeps the man's name associated with the property and hopefully produces a son who will carry on the family name along with the property.

Boaz's choice of delivery in describing the transaction builds tension by adding value to the deal while simultaneously complicating it. With the addition of Ruth into the equation the kinsman no longer simply considers buying property; now he must consider buying property and taking a wife that will pass on another man's name to their children. The kinsman refuses, claiming it would damage his own inheritance, and so Boaz claims all of Elimelech's property and Ruth, and promises to carry on her dead husband's name.

The witnesses accept the transaction and bless Boaz and Ruth, saying:

"May the Lord make the woman who is coming into your house like Rachel and Leah, who together built up the house of Israel. May you produce children in Ephrathah and bestow a name in Bethlehem; and, through the children that the Lord will give you by this young woman, may your house be like the house of Perez, whom Tamar bore to Judah."
(Ruth 4.11-12)

Quite conveniently, all this occurs, as Ruth gives birth to Obed, who will be the father of Jesse, father of David. The biblical author, of course, knows that all this will happen, and uses the invocation of Rachel and Leah, matriarchs of Israel, to assert David's greatness.

And so Ruth and Naomi both receive the protection of a man. But there is still the problem that Obed's mother is a Moabite. The biblical author jury-rigs a reasonable solution: Ruth's son is taken by Naomi, who becomes his nurse, creating a literal and figurative connection between the child and Judah. The neighborhood women authorize the connection by saying, "A son has been born to Naomi." It is not her son, but it does allow Elimelech's name to be passed on. By this method the son has two "parents" that are descended from Judah: Boaz and Naomi.

Dear Reader

Dear readers, faithful, unfaithful, and indifferent:

Unfortunately, my job is beginning to eat into my blogging time. I am able to blog on the train ride to and from work, but I have trouble focusing while on a moving vehicle and surrounded by coughing and talking people. In addition, I have been busy looking for an apartment, have found an apartment, and will be moving into the apartment November first. Finally, and most importantly, I do not feel my work as of late is up to par. It is filled with typos and half-baked thoughts; relics of early morning and late night train rides. This is not what I want to do with the blog.

So I propose a new covenant.

Every Tuesday I will post a fuller, richer post on the bible as I read through it. This will allow me to gloss over the less important parts, and also speak about the literature on a larger scale. I am still fully committed to reading my way through the entire bible - and blogging through it as well. But I hope my posts will now be more scholarly, insightful, informative, and perhaps even humorous. Only time will tell.

I will resume posting Tuesday with the book of Ruth.

Thank you, readers, for making it this far. We still have a long way to go.

Judges 20: Fallout from the Levite's concubine story

Judges 20: The Other Tribes Attack Benjamin

Judges 21 and 22 are the last two chapters of the book of Judges, though no judges appear within the stories. Instead the reading tells of what life was like after Joshua and before the monarchy, when Israel was a little disjointed and the tribes acted for themselves. Some of them make mistakes, as we discovered in yesterday's reading. Today we read of the fallout from the Gibeah affair, as the Benjaminites as a tribeare punished for the sins of the citizens of the town of Gibeah.

The Other Tribes Attach Benjamin: Judges 20
After each tribe receives a part of the Levite's concubine, all the Israelites gather at an assembly at Mizpah, including 400,000 armed foot soldiers. There the Levite explains his story (quoted verbatim below):

I came to Gibeah that belongs to Benjamin, I and my concubine, to spend the night. The lords of Gibeah rose up against me, and surrounded the house at night. They intended to kill me, and they raped my concubine until she died. Then I took my concubine and cut her into pieces, and sent her throughout the whole extent of Israel's territory; for they have committed a vile outrage in Israel. So now, you Israelites, all of you, give your advice and counsel here.
(Judg. 20.4-7)

Let's examine the Levite's speech. The lords of Gibeah did rise up against him and surround the house. However, their stated intention was not to kill him, but to rape him. And while it is true that they raped his concubine until she died, it was he that threw her out there in the first place. The Levite's story is not factual; it leaves out important details that should be considered.

Action is taken solely on the Levite's testimony - no other witness steps forward. The Israelites decide amongst themselves to send 10 percent of the men (10 of every 100) from every tribe to unite in an attack against Gibeah.

Men are sent through Benjamin to ask the Benjamintes to give up their brethren in Gibeah. But the Benjamintes do not listen and instead decide to defend Gibeah. The impending battle will have Benjamin (26,000 men plus the residents of Gibeah) face off against the 11 other tribes of Israel (400,000 warriors). Of the Benjaminite army is an elite group of 700 left-handed men who can sling a stone at a hair and not miss. Presumably they will be primarily responsible for the upcoming carnage.

The Israelites proceed to Bethel, where they ask God which tribe shall go up first in battle. The Lord responds Judah. His statement makes explicit his approval of the whole affair - and indeed he will back the Israelite army. So why does God support war based on the testimony of a liar? Though this is not explicated, perhaps the answer lies in the story of Samson, in which God hacks together a situation on earth to deliver divine justice.

On the first day of battle, 22,000 Israelites are struck down. They weep before the Lord until evening, and ask if they should attack again. The Lord responds affirmatively.

On the second day of battle, 18,000 Israelites are struck down. They weep before the Lord and fast until evening, and then offer burnt offerngs and sacrifices of well-being befor ethe Lord. And ask if they should attack again. The Lord responds affirmatively - tomorrow Benjamin will be given into their hand.

Day Three, Version I
On the third day of battle, Israel stations some men in ambush and around the city and the rest begin battle as usual. They draw the Benjaminites from the city and those in ambush attack and capture the city. The Lord defeats Benjamin, with the Israelites destroying 25,100 men of Benjamin, nearly the entire army.

Day Three, Version II
But wait, there's more! The biblical author includes a second, more detailed account.

Arrayed as before with some men lying in ambush and others fighting. The fighters draw the Benjaminites away from the city as those waiting in ambush attack the city and set it aflame. When the Benjamites see the smoke they know that defeat is upon them. 18,000 die as they flee toward the wilderness. 5,000 are cut down on the main roads, and then 2,000 more slain. In all, 25,000 men die, just 100 less than the previous account.

Six hundred Benjaminites are able to escape to the rock of Rimmon, where they remain for four months. Meanwhile, the Israelites slaughter the remaining Benjaminites (men, women, and children), kill their animals, and destroy everything in a blaze of fire. Those 600 at the rock of Rimmon are all that remain of the Benjaminites.

The Benjaminites Saved from Extinction: Judges 21
The civil war is finished, and a lot of clean-up is necessary.

The biblical author informs us that in addition to the pact of retribution, the Israelites had also sworn at Mizpah that none of their daughters should marry a Benjaminite. This is a problem, as there are only 600 members of Benjamin left, all of them men. Soon the Benjaminites will die out, and the Israelites actually weep for the attrition of the tribe (even though they inflicted it themselves).

The Israelites then inquire whether anyone was not present at Mizpah, for it had been decided that all of Israel should be there on pain of death. It turns out that no one from Jabesh-gilead was in attendance. So 12,000 soldiers go down to Jabesh-gilead to slaughter the entire city. But the Israelites seek to simultaneously fix the Benjaminite problem. All the virgins of the city are to be spared and brought to the Benjaminites as wives. Unfortunately, there were only 400 women.

The congregation sends word of peace to the Benjaminites at the rock of Rimmon. They return and are given the women - though 200 men still remain without a wife. These men are instructed to go to Shiloh at the festival of the Lord and wait in the vineyards. When the young women come out to dance in the vineyards, the men are to capture them and take them home.

It's the sex-marriage economy in action!

The book of Judges ends with that constant reminder that has been emphasized throughout the last few chapters: "In those days there was no king in Israel; all the people did what was right in their own eyes." This reminds us of all the violence and apostasy of this chapter, and foreshadows the time to come, when there will be a king in Israel and the people will do what is right in his eyes. But we have some more reading to get through first.

There were good judges and bad judges of Israel, but throughout the book a constant theme of the Unfaithfulness Cycle prevailed as a means of demonstrating how the Israelites act when left to their own devices.

Judges 19: The Levite's Concubine

Judges 19: The Levite's Concubine / Gibeah's Crime

Sometimes stories repeat themselves in the bible with different characters and dialogue, sort of the same way the Romeo and Juliet is updated in West Side Story. Or maybe you're watching a movie where a white man is thrown into a group of natives and learns something about them while still leading them in some way. Is that Dances With Wolves or Fern Gully or Avatar?

In any case, these story types repeat. Today we will see a repetition of the Sodom story in the "Gibeah's Crime" section below.

The Levite's Concubine: Judges 19.1-21
This is the third time in three chapters that the biblical author informs us that these stories take place in the days "when there was no king in Israel." These stories all exemplify in one way or another the normative lawlessness at the time.

And that thing about the repeating stories? It also appears here, with a new spin on the courtship scene between Jacob and Rachel

A Levite living in Ephraim takes a concubine for himself from Bethlehem in Judah. At some point the concubine becomes angry with the Levite and leaves for her father's house. Four months later the Levite sets out to woo her back. The father-in-law is overjoyed to see him and detains him five days. The Levite tries to leave with his concubine, but the father keeps insisting for some reason or another on eating in drinking (the antithesis of the Jacob story, in which he had to work for his wife).

The man leaves late on the fifth day and finds himself at Jebus (Jerusalem). His servant asks to stop there, but the Leivte insists on continuing to Gibeah, a city inhabited by Benjaminites, not the non-Israelite Jebusites. Apparently it is better to stay with family when you are out.

Gibeah is rather inhospitable. No one takes in the Levite, his concubine, and his servant, though they need no food or wine. They resolve to spend the night in the square when a man comes and offers him his house, saying, "Peace be to you. I will care for all your wants; only do not spend the night in the square."

Gibeah's Crime: Judges 19.22-30
That night a perverse lot surrounds the house and demands to have sexual intercourse with the Levite, the guest in this man's house. The man, as a sign of hospitality, offers his virgin daughter and the man's concubine, indicating their order of importance: daughter, female guest, male guest. (Where the servant figures in, it does not say.) The men will not listen, so Levite grabs his concubine and throws her outside, presumably to save himself. (In a perverse way, he returns the hospitality of the man by not throwing out the virgin daughter instead/as well.)

The men outside "wantonly raped her, and abused her all through the night until the morning. And as the dawn began to break, they let her go. As morning appeared, the woman came and fell down at the door of the man's house where her master was, until it was light." Besides the graphic (by biblical standards) depiction, the sheer length of this statement indicates the gruesomeness of the crime. Another important detail: the Levite is referred to the woman's master, though their relationship is man-concubine, not master-slave. Is it possible the biblical author's compassion for the woman has leaked into the writing?

The master awakes the next morning, finds his concubine lying at the door of the house with her hands on the threshold. She is at not only that literal threshold, but probably the threshold of death as well. If ever there was a symbolic, poetic description in the bible, this is it. But the Levite simply (coarsely?) tells his wife to get up so they can go. She does not answer. The author does not say if she is dead.

The Levite puts the concubine on his donkey and they head home. When the Levite arrives home, he uses a knife to cut his concubine limb from limb into 12 pieces, which he sends throughout Israel. It is to be delivered with this message: "Has such a thing ever happened since the day that the Israelites came up from the land of Egypt until this day? Consider it, take counsel, and speak out."

And there is speaking out, as we shall see tomorrow. And in the meantime we should dwell on the gruesomeness of the story - and the biblical author has given us many gruesome things to consider. Which is most disturbing - the homosexual tendencies of the men of Gibeah, the woman's treatment by the men of Gibeah, the Levite's treatment of his wife at the threshold, or the message sent limb by limb to the tribes of Israel?

Judges 17-18: Micah and the Levite

Judges 17: Micah and the Levite
Judges 18: The Migration of Dan / The Danites Settle in Laish

After Joshua and before the Kings, Israel apparently did pretty much whatever it wanted with regards to worship, even though they have received strict commandments about proper practice. So why isn't the biblical author more critical of their practices? That is the question to consider today throughout the reading.

Micah and the Levite: Judges 17
The story of Micah, which serves as an introduction to the Danites apostasy, begins at the very end of a story. It is as though we came in exceptionally late to a movie and are at the point where all the plotlines converge.

There is a man in Ephraim whose name is Micah. He tells his mother that the eleven hundred pieces of silver she was looking for - well, he actually took that. But now he will return it. The mother plans to do something strange with it: "I consecrate the silver to the Lord from my hand for my son, to make an idol of cast metal." There are two problems with this statement. One, consecrated silver should go to the Levites as an offering to the Lord. Two, Israelite law strictly prohibits any portrayal of any god - even the God of Israel. It gets worse: Micah has a shrine, and makes an ephod and teraphim, and installs one of his sons as a priest. This parody of the Lord's servants is definitely not kosher. But, as the author explains: "In those days there was no ing in Israel; all the people did what was right in their own eyes." Wait a minute - a king? Oh yes. Kings are fast approaching. But for now let's continue with judges.

The story shifts to a Levite from Bethlehem in Judah. He journeys out to find a place and winds up living with Micah, who gives him ten pieces of silver a year, clothing, and living expenses in exchange for the man serving as priest and being "a father" for Micah. (The father part was foreshadowed by the fact that Micah stole money from his mother, not his father.

So we have Micah worshipping the Lord improperly with the help of a priest! And despite this (and not knowing any better) Micah says, "Now I know that the Lord will prosper me, because the Levite has become my priest."

The Migration of Dan: Judges 18.1-26
The biblical author reminds us as a prelude to the story that "In those days there was no king in Israel." And since no territory was allotted to the Danites, they are searching for a place to live. The Danites send five spies to scope out the land, and they somehow wind up at Micah's house. They recognize the Levite staying there, and ask him about how he came to be there, and whether their mission will be successful. The priest tells his story and assures them that their mission "is under the eye of the Lord." This fact is a bit unsettling, considering what comes later.

The spies travel to Laish, where they see people living in peace, quiet and unsuspecting and wealthy. Furthermore, they are far away from anyone who might come to their aid in battle. Upon returning the spies urge the Danites to take the good land quickly.

Six hundred Danite men head out for Laish and (surprise, surprise!) end up at Micah's Roadhouse^TM. The spies tell the other soldiers of the shrine in Micah's house, and the army decides to pay a visit. As 600 men armed for battle stand outside the house, the five spies go into Micah's house to steal all the paraphernalia of worship. They then convince the priest to come with them (and in the same words as Micah, serve as both father and priest) with some simple logic: "Is it better for you to be priest to the house of one person, or to be priest to a tribe and clan in Israel?" Well, you can't argue with that - even though he is improperly practicing service to the Lord.

The Danites expect an attack from Micah, as when they head out they put the little ones, livestock, and goods in the front. Indeed, Micah comes with all his neighbors to overtake the Danites. The Danites ask what is the matter and Micah responds to the effect that they robbed him of the god he created. The Danites respond to the effect that he should pipe down lest some hot-tempered fellows attack him. Seeing that the army is too strong, Micah does not attacjk

The Danites Settle in Laish: Judges 18.27-31
The army travels on to Laish, which they conquer and rebuild to live in. There they set up the idol and a priesthood to maintain it. And now you know (as did the ancient audience this was intended for) why the Danites had such weird worship practices - like apostasy.

Judges 15-16: Samson (Part II)

Judges 15: Samson Defeats the Philistines
Judges 16: Samson and Delilah / Samson's Death

Today's reading is a continuation of the Samson story line. Read Part I here. Samson is a strong nazirite who can speak in riddles and poetry and has a huge temper problem. But it is his temper that defines his Chuck Norris-like awesomeness, as he slays hundreds of men with the slightest provocation.

But Samson is only a vehicle for God's actions against the Philistines. Samson is able to engineer situations in which the Philistines wrong him, and then fights them as the spirit of the Lord is upon him.

Samson Defeats the Philistines: Judges 15
At the time of the wheat harvest Samson returns to Timnah in order to see his wife. The woman's father refuses on the grounds that Samson had seemed to reject her. Instead the man offers her sister instead, which to an ancient audience would not seem as strange as it might today.

But all this is simply more pretext to wreak havoc on the Philistines. Samson catches 300 foxes and ties them all tail to tail, with a lit torch in each pair of tails. He then lets them run wild in the grain, vineyards, and olive groves of the Philistines.

As evidenced in yesterday's reading, Samson is very good at having the Philistines get each other killed. This continues today, as the Philistines burn Samson's wife and her father for their relation with Samson.That doesn't make Samson any happier, and he strikes down all the men in vengeance and goes to stay in the cleft of the rock of Etam.

After the Philistines make a raid on Lehi searching for Samson, 3,000 men of Judah come to Samson at Etam and tell him not to bother the ruling Philistines. (3,000 men are sent to bind one - a testament to Samson's might.) Samson replies simply that he is repaying them for what they did to him. Nevertheless, the men of Judah bind Samson and give him to the Philistines.

When the Philistines rush at Samson, a new chapter of awesomeness begins as the spirit of the Lord comes upon him. The ropes holding Samson melt away, and then slays 1,000 men with the jawbone of a donkey.

After that Samson is very thirsty and calls to the Lord. God splits open a hollow place and water bursts forth. Samson drinks and continues to be awesome. He judges Israel 20 years.

Samson and Delilah: Judges 16.1-22
A feat of wit and strength: Samson goes down to Gaza and sleeps with a prostitute. When the Gazites hear of it, they wait at the city gate all night until the morning, when they plan to kill him. However, Samson rises at midnight, pulls up the city gate, and carries them 35 miles to the top of the hill in front of Hebron. This story serves as a prelude to the machinations of the Philistines ahead.

Samson falls in love with a Philistine woman named Delilah. When the lords of the Philistines hear this, they offer her 1,100 pieces of silver each if she can discover why his strength is so great.

When she asks how he might be bound, Samson responds that he can be bound with seven fresh bowstrings. Delilah binds him, and as the Philistines wait nearby, say to him, "The Philistines are upon you, Samson!" But Samson breaks free.

The scene repeats two more times, the bowstrings replaced by new ropes and then by having seven locks of Samson's hair woven into a loom (which at least gives away a piece of the puzzle). But neither of these is successful, and Delilah continues to nag her husband. Finally Samson informs her that he is a nazirite, and that his strength will leave him if his head is shaved.

This time Delilah waits until Samson is asleep, has a man shave seven locks from his hair, and wakes him with the familiar cry, "The Philistines are upon you, Samson!" But with his hair gone, the Lord has abandoned Samson. The Philisitnes seize him and gouge his eyes out. They imprison him in Gaza, where he grinds at a mill.

Soon, though, the hair begins to grow back.

Samson's Death: Judges 16.23-31
The Philistines gather a sacrifice for their god Dagon because they have finally captured Samson - and Samson is the source of entertainment at the affair. He performs between two pillars of a house full of men and women, with 3,000 on the roof alone. The blind Samson asks the attendant if he could lean against the pillars, as a way to judge their strength. Then he asks the Lord for the strength to pay back the Philistines - though he recognizes he too will die. In one last feat of strength, Samson strains against the pillars, causing the house to collapse and killing all who are inside it. "So those he killed at his death were more than those he had killed during his life."

Samson's family come to bury the hero, who through his own personal dealings with the Philistines was able to kill many of them for God and for Israel.

Judges 13-14: Samson (Part I)

Judges 13: Samson's Birth
Judges 14: Samson's Marriage

Today we begin the first part of a two-part story about Samson, that guy with the hair. Samson is a pretty well-known biblical character, but the popular image of a character might be more informed by contemporary culture than by the bible. Samson is strong, yes, but he also has a temper and problems with women (meaning he isn't interested in Israelite females. And did you know he could speak in poetry and make riddles? If not, come find out.

Samson's Birth: Judges 13
Again the Israelites fall into their old ways (the first step the unfaithfulness cycle) and the Lord gives them into the hand of the Philistins for forty years - which actually may be a lot longer because 40 is a symbolic number meaning a long amount of time.

Samson's birth, like a number of other births in the bible, comes as a collaboration between the God and humans (see, for example, Isaac and Jacob, and later on Jesus). In these stories the Lord comes down to the mother or father and promises a son.

Samson's father's name is Manoah, but his wife (though she gives birth to Samson) remains unnamed. The angel of the Lord visits this apparently barren woman to inform her that she will bear a son, a boy to be a nazirite from birth. A nazirite (meaning "one consecrated") is a person who devotes him or herself to God through certain practices (cf. Numbers 6.1-21). This state of dedication is generally temporary and broken when one of the practices is not observed. This boy is to be a nazirite from birth, and so his mother is not to drink wine or eat unclean foods while she is pregnant. After birth, the boy is to abstain from these things as well and his head will never be shaved. The purpose of all this, says the angel of the Lord, is that the woman's son will begin to deliver Israel from the Philistines.

The woman tells her husband Manoah of the visitation, and he prays to the Lord to send the angel again so that he may see him and learn more about what to do concerning the boy. God listens and sends an angel to the woman as she sits in a field. She runs to get her husband, who - thinking the angel is only a man - questions the angel about the boy's purpose. The angel gives an indirect answer, stating that the woman should observe the words already spoken to her.

Manoah offers to prepare a kid for who he thinks is a man, but the angel refuses, saying the man should give a burnt offering instead. Still thinking the angel is a man, Manoah asks his name so that he may honor him when the son is born. This is a big faux pas on Manoah's part. Knowing a name allows one to honor a person, but it also gives power over that person. This is why Jacob asks the name of the being he wrestles with - to have the name of the person gives power. For this reason God always remains aloof about his name, speaking in riddles like "I am what I am." Indeed, Jews do not pronounce the tetragrammaton YHWH to this day. So of course the angel of the Lord responds, "Why do you ask my name? It is too wonderful."

Manoah still does not seem to understand as he prepares the sacrifice. But when the angel of the Lord ascends with the flame, Manoah and his wife fall to their faces. Manoah panics in the traditional way people panic when they encounter God in person: "We shall surely die." His wife, however, reassures him that God would not have accepted the sacrifice or announced the coming of the child if he had meant to kill them.

The woman bears a son, whom she names Samson. As he grows, the spirit of the Lord begins to stir in him.

Samson's Birth: Judges 14
The cardinal rule of God's renewed covenant with the Israelites is that they are not to worship other gods. And the easiest way to fall into this pattern is to intermarry. To put is succinclty: Exogamy leads to apostasy.

Nevertheless, Samson, the man to begin the deliverance of Israel, has a soft spot for Philistine women. His parents try to dissuade him (and actually in this culture it is they that will arrange the marriage) but are unsuccessful. The biblical author creates some dramatic irony here, informing the reader that Samson's taste in women is the doing of the Lord, who is seeking a pretext to act against the Philistines, who have dominion over Israel.

Samnson goes down with his mother and father to Timnah, where the Philistine woman lives. Along the way a young lion roars at him and the spirit of the Lord comes upon him and he tears the creature apart. He does not inform his parents of this.

A while later Samson returns to marry the woman. On the way, he sees a swarm of bees in the lion carcass, and they have produced honey. He scoops out some honey and eats it as he walks, giving some to his mother and father as well. He does not tell them where he got the honey from.

Why doesn't Samson tell his parents about killing the lion or about where he got the honey? Well, we're being set up for a story...

At the marriage feast Samson is given 30 Philistine companions, who - rather than acting as an entourage - might be there to keep the Philistines safe from him. Samson challenges them to a riddle contest. If they can decipher his riddle within seven days, he will give them 30 linen garments and 30 festal garments. If he stumps them, he will receive 30 linen garments and 30 festal garments. The riddle:

Out of the eater came something to eat.
Out of the strong came something sweet.

What could it be? For three days the men cannot figure it out.

On the fourth day the men threaten to burn the houses of Samson's wife and her father if she does not coax the answer from her husband. Samson's wife accuses her husband of not loving her, but that does not work; he has not told even his father or mother. She weeps and nags him seven days, and on the final day he tells her.

The 30 men return to Samson with the answer - in the form of a new riddle:

What is sweeter than honey?
What is stronger than a lion?

The answer to this one is not given (though HarperCollins think it might be "love"). Samson responds in bawdy poetry, which actually resembles riddle form with its use of metaphor:

If you had not plowed with my heifer,
you would not have found out my riddle.

Store that one away to whip out next time you're in a similar situation. Your opposition will be dumbfounded and your significant other greatly insulted.

The spirit of the Lord again rushes on Samson, but he does not kill the 30 companions. Rather, he goes down to Ashkelon and kills 30 men there, taking their spoil to pay back his companions. The joke's on the Philistines. They might have gotten what they wanted, but now the Lord has pretext to act against them, and the 30 Philistine residents of Ashkelon have been killed.

The wife? She is given to Samson's best man.

Judges 11-12: Jephthah (Part II - a rash vow)

Judges 11: Jephthah's Vow / Jephtah's Daughter
Judges 12: Intertribal Dissension / Ibzan, Elon, and Abdon

This is the second part in a two-part series on the judge Jephthah. Read Part I here.

Jephthah's Vow: Judges 11.29-33
The spirit of the Lord comes upon Jephthah, and he is empowered by it and so goes to face off against the Ammonites. He makes a vow to the Lord: If the Lord delivers the Ammonites into his hand, he will offer as a burnt offering the first person to come out of the doors of his house when he returns home victorious.

Just who does Jephthah expect to come out of his doors? He never says. Perhaps a servant. And when he subdues the Ammonites does his mind still weigh heavy with his vow? The biblical author does not tell us. All we know is that Jephthah is victorious.

Jephthah's Daughter: Judges 11.34-40
Jephthah is greeted by his only child, his daughter, "coming out to meet him with timbrels and with dancing." He tears his clothes in mourning, realizing the tragedy of the situation. The way he speaks of it deserves analysis:
"Alas, my daughter! You have brought me very low; you have become the cause of great trouble to me. For I have opened my mouth to the Lord, and I cannot take back my vow."

The subject-verb-object construction addressing the daughter directly makes the "you have" statements seem accusatory, when it is not really her fault; she did not know about his vow. Yet everything is based on the vow. The vow cannot be revoked, and for this reason Jephthah must kill his daughter.

Jephthah's pious and courageous daughter reassures her father by telling him that he is bound by his vow to the Lord. She only asks that she may go to the mountains with her companions to bewail her virginity (in this culture it was seen as a terrible misfortune to die a virgin). She returns after two months and her father makes good on his vow to the Lord.

This story is apparently etiological; the closing statement of the chapter informs us, "So there arose an Israelite custom that for four days every year the daughters of Israel would go out to lament the daughter of Jephthah the Gileadite" (Judg. 11.39-40).

Intertribal Dissension: Judges 12.1-7
The Ephraimites come to Jephthah to tell him how incensed they are that the judge did not call them when he fought the Ammonites. [This is not simply an issue of pride, but of land rights as well. The Ephraimites seem to have a history of this, confronting Gideon about nearly the same thing in Judges 8.] Jephthah replies that the Ephraimites were called upon but were not able to deliver Jephthah and the Gileadites from the hand of the Ammonites. There is no biblical record of this, but we must also consider that the biblical author is quite laconic. So who are we to believe?

The smaller group of Gileadites faces off against Ephraim and are able to take the fords of the Jordan, where they develop a clever trick for distinguishing whether men trying to cross are Ephraimite or Gileadite. They tell the man to say "Shibboleth," and if the man mispronounces it as "Sibboleth" he is killed. This points to a dialectical difference between the two groups.

Jephthah judges Israel a total of six years. Whether there is peace after his death, the biblical author does not say.

Jephthah's death raises an interesting issue. The concluding story does not mention Jephthah. Then we are informed of his death, which transitions us into a few minor prophets. The interesting part is that Jephthah's death is written in the same style as the minor judges that follow. In this way Jephthah is both a minor and major prophet. Perhaps his story was expanded upon by the biblical authors?

Intertribal Dissension: Judges 12.8-15
After Jephthah's death, Ibzan of Bethlehem judges Israel. He is pretty big on intermarriage; having his thirty daughters marry outside the clan and having his thirty sons marry women outside the clan. He judges Israel seven years

After him comes Elon the Zebulunite, who judges Israel ten years.

After him comes Abdon son of Hillel the Pirathonite. He judges Israel eight years.

Judges 10-11: Jephthah (Part I)

Judges 10: Tola and Jair / Oppression by the Ammonites / Jephthah
Judges 11(a): Jephthah

Abimelech's tenure was something of a mess for Israel. Now a new leader comes to straighten things out.

Tola and Jair: Judges 10.1-5
A brief interlude between Abimelech and Jephthah describes the two intervening judges: Tola son of Puah son of Dodo, of Isaachar judges Israel 23 years. He is succeeded by Jair the Gileadite, who judges Israel 22 years.

Oppression by the Ammonites: Judges 10.6-18
After this interlude, the unfaithfulness cycle picks back up again. Again the Israelites fall into apostasy, worshipping a veritable pantheon of different gods. This kindles the anger of the Lord, who actually "sells" them into the hands of the Philistines and Ammonites. The Israelites suffer 18 years under them.

As per the unfaithfulness cycle, the Israelites cry out to the Lord and acknowledge their sin. The Lord responds that that he will not deliver them from their oppressors; he has delivered them many times, yet each time they seem to forget him. The Israelites put away their foreign gods and worship the Lord, and finally the Lord's sympathy for Israel wins out.

Jephthah: Judges 11.1-28
Enter Jephthah, a mighty warrior whose mother is a prostitute and whose father is Gilead himself. His half brothers - the sons of Gilead's wife - are not his biggest fans. They drive him out of Gilead to Tob and he becomes an outlaw, raiding with a band of others.

Clearly Jephthah has some military prowess from his raiding experience, because when the Ammonites attack Israel, the elders of Gilead approach him to offer him a job as commander. Jephthah sees this as something of a conspiracy. He responds, "Are you not the very ones who rejected me and drove me out of my father's house? So why do you come to me now when you are in trouble?" (Judg. 11.7). In fact, it was not they who drove him out, but his brothers. Jephthah smells a conspiracy, and perhaps is not far off, because the elders do not deny their connection. Indeed, they offer him a better position of leader over all of them. Jephthah agrees that if he conquers the Ammonites, he will serve as leader.

Jephthah begins his campaign rather diplomatically by sending a message to the king of the Ammonites asking why he is at war with Israel. The king responds that Israel took his land (Moabite territory) upon their exodus from Egypt. Jephthah succinctly recounts the wandering in the desert, and asserts that in fact Israel did not take the land of the Moabites. Rather, they conquered the Amorites, a divine act of the Lord. And, in fact, they lived in the territory 300 years, during which time the Ammonites did not attempt to conquer the land. Jephthah asks rhetorically if the king possesses land that his god Chemosh has given. But the king does not listen, and continues his conquest against Israel.

Judges 9: Abimelech

Judges 9: Abimelech Attempts to Establish a Monarchy / The Parable of the Trees / The Downfall of Abimelech

Abimelech is a judge who isn't so great at that whole "peace in Israel" thing. Oh, and he's prone to fratricide.

Abimelech Attempts to Establish a Monarchy: Judges 9.1-6
Abimelech son of Gideon/Jerubbaal approaches his family with a proposition: It is better for him to rule over the family than all 70 sons of Jerubbaal. His family consents to this because of their kinship but it turns out this is a bad idea. Abimelech is given 70 pieces of silver from the temple, with which he hires an entourage of worthless and reckless men. He takes them to kill all 69 of his brothers at once - Jotham, the youngest, hides himself [remember that one of the characteristics of Hebrew scriptures is favoritism for the youngest]. Abimelech is then pronounced the king of Shechem.

The Parable of the Trees: Judges 9.7-21
Upon hearing that his brother is king, Jotham recites a parable to the lords of Shechem from the top of Mount Gerizim. The parable tells of trees that wish to anoint a king over themselves. The olive tree declines because it would stop producing oil. The fig tree declines because it would stop producing fruit. The vine declines because it would stop producing wine [well, grapes, but metonymy happens]. Finally, the bramble accepts, but only conditionally. If it is anointed king in good faith, then it offers its shade as refuge [which isn't much]. If not anointed in good faith, however, fire will come out of the bramble and devour the cedars of Lebanon.

The lesson of this parable is that even though many others may have more to offer, only lesser people seek kingship. And if this kingship is not granted in good faith...watch out. There will be blood.

Then Jotham runs and hides - his brother is after him, after all.

The Downfall of Abimelech: Judges 9.22-57
Abimelech rules over Israel three years before God sends "an evil spirit" between Abimelech and the lords of Shechem to avenge Jerubbaal's sons - both their slayer (Abimelech) and the men that gave him power (the lords of Shechem).

The lords of Shechem sets ambushes on the mountain tops and rob people as a way to undermine Abimelech. Then Gaal moves into town, and talks trash about Abimelech, adding that he should rule the city instead. When Zebul - the ruler of the city - hears this, he gets angry. He devises a plan to attack Gaal and his troops in the city: "and when he and the troops that are with him come out against you, you may deal with them as best you can."

Now, "as best you can" is not exactly what Abimelech has been doing to people. Abimelech is one for completely destroying. This shows how far he has fallen from the Lord's grace. And how different are Gaal and Abimelech anyway? Both are men who seek to change the social order and become king - certainly at the cost of others.

The next morning Abimelech and his army pour down form the mountain tops when Gaal appears at the city gates. When Gaal tells Zebul that he sees people coming, Zebul responds it is mere shadows. Gaal insists, and Zebul replies, "Where is your boast now?" and insists he should go to fight Abimelech. In the end Gaal flees, many people die, and Zebul rids himself of the obnoxious Gaal and his kinsfolk.

Abimelech then focuses on killing the common folk of the city, those who work in the fields. When they are dead he takes Shechem, kills all its inhabitant, razes it, and sows it with salt, so nothing will grow there.

Abimelech then turns his attention toward the lords of the Tower of Shechem, who have holed themselves up in the Tower (of Shechem). Abimelech slays them too by burning down the tower.

Abimelech then takes all of Thebez with the exception of the tower. He attempts to burn it down as he did the last tower, but an unnamed woman crushes his skull by throwing a millstone on his head. Abimelech, not wanting to die at the hands of a woman, has the young man who carries his armor kill him with his own sword.

At Abimelech's death, all of Israel returns home. So God repays Abimelech for the sin he committed against his father in killing his seventy brothers. God also repays Israel in accordance with Jotham's curse.

What a bloodbath. There is no peace in Israel.

Judges 8: Gideon (Part III)

Judges 8: Gideon's Triumph and Vengeance / Gideon's Idolatry / Death of Gideon

Today we continue our analysis of Gideon's story. See Part I and Part II for more information.

Gideon's Triumph and Vengeance: Judges 8.1-21
The Ephraimites are angry that Gideon did not call on them first when attacking the Midianites. Gideon responds that the gleaning (worst) of the grapes of Ephraim is better than the vintage (best) of his own tribe Abiezer, which he indicated earlier. Besides, the Ephraimites received the - er - choice parts of the army to put in in sacrificial terms: Oreb and Zeeb. This explanation quiets the Ephraimites.

Well, perhaps Gideon did not explain the entire situation to the Ephraimites (or more likely this next story coms from a different source) because he then pursues Zebah and Zalmunna, the kings of Midian. At Succoth Gideon asks for bread for his 300 men, so that he can catch them. But the officials of Succoth give him nothing and taunt him for not having already captured them. Gideon is angered by this, and vows that when the Lord has given Zebah and Zalmunna into his hands, he will trample the officials of Succoth with thorns and briers. When the people of Penuel similarly deny him, he vows to break down the tower there.

Gideon and his 300 men conquer the 15,000 remaining men - 120,000 had already fallen - and capture Zebah and Zalmunna. Gideon then finds a young man of Succoth and asks for the names of the 77 officials of Succoth. He is then able to make good on his promise in Succoth, as well as Penuel. When Gideon questions Zebah and Zalmunna about the men they killed at Tabor, they respond, "As you are, so were they, every one of them; they resembled the sons of a king." This speech is ironic in its elevation of the Abiezerite clan, the weakest of all Manasseh. Gideon replies that those were his brothers, and that he will avenge their deaths. He commands Jether his firstborn to kill Zeber and Zalmunna, but the boy seems to be hesitant like his father. Gideon therefore kills the two men himself, at their own suggestion.

Gideon's Idolatry: Judges 8.22-28
The Israelites ask Gideon to rule over them in a dynasty, but Gideon refuses, asserting that the Lord should rule over them. This is an act of humility, which makes his next action seem strange. Gideon asks that each man bring him a gold earring taken as booty. With this Gideon makes an Ephod, which he puts in Orphah, and which Gideon's family worships as a false god. But during his life, at least, the land had rest forty years.

Death of Gideon: Judges 8.29-35
Gideon had 70 sons, from many wives, as well as a concubine, who bears a son named Abimelech. [This will be important later on.]

As soon as Gideon dies, the people relapse into idol worship, forgetting God and Jerubball (Gideon) alike.

So goes the unfaithfulness cycle.

Judges 7: Gideon (Part II)

Judges 7: Gideon Surprises and Routs the Midianites

Today we continue our analysis of Gideon's story. See Part I for more information.

Gideon Surprises and Routs the Midianites: Judges 7
Jerubball (Gideon) camps with his troops beside the spring of Harod, with the Midianites to the north. The Lord informs Gideon that he has too many people - Israel would take credit for the victory if this many people conquered the Midianites. Gibeon is therefore to command the fearful to return home. 22,000 men leave; 10,000 remain.

This is still too many, so the Lord has Gideon separate the men by how they drink at a stream. The 300 that lap like a dog are chosen, whereas the rest that drink with by kneeling and bringing their hands to their mouths are told to return home. The group of underdogs seems a bit, er, scrappy or uncouth, but this is the ragtag group that God will use to deliver Israel from the Midianites.

God promises to deliver the Midianites into Gideon's hands that night, but gives offers help: if he is afraid, Gideon may go down to the camp with his servant Purah, close enough to hear the Midianites, and there he will be strengthened.

The Midianites lay thick as locusts, their camels as countless as sand on the seashore. Gideon creeps up to a tent and hears a man telling of a dream he had in which a cake of barley bread came into his tent an upended it. The man's comrade responds that this must be Gideon, who has been given by God Midian and all its army.

Gideon (of course) rejoices at this. He returns to the camp and tells his soldiers to take empty jars and trumpets (collected from the soldiers that would not participate) and do as he commands: they will surround the Midianite camp and when he blows his trumpet, everyone else should too, and cry, "a sword for the Lord and for Gideon!" When the time comes they all do this, and the camp is thrown into chaos, with men killing men from their own nation and then fleeing, only to be cut down by Naphtali, Asher, and Manasseh. Gideon then sends messengers to tell the Ephraimites to attack the Midianites as they flee. The Ephraimites capture and kill the two captains of Midian: Oreb and Zeeb.

Judges 6: Gideon (Part I)

Judges 6: The Midianite Oppression / The Call of Gideon / Gideon Destroys the Altar of Baal / The Sign of the Fleece

These three chapters examine the work of one of the great judges Gideon.

The Midianite Oppression: Judges 6.1-10
By now the biblical author has employed the unfaithfulness cycle enough times that the reader intuitively understands it and the author does not have to give a long explanation. The cycle has become a type scene that the reader understands through past iterations of the same type scene. This time it is Midian that conquers Israel, a naiton that prevails seven years, forcing the Israelites into caves and strongholds in the mountains. The Midianites seem to camp next to Israel whenever the Israelites plant their seeds to sustain themselves. The Midianites and their camels destroy everything and are innumerable - like locusts.

The people cry out to the Lord, who delivers a prophet warning Israel that they have not given heed to the Lord's voice. The identity of this prophet is a mystery.

The Call of Gideon: Judges 6.11-27
The Call of Gideon reads almost like a comedy of errors. The angel of the Lord comes to a man named Gideon and sits under an oak tree at Ophrah as Gideon beats out wheat in a wine press (normally this would be done on a windy hill, but Israel at this time is under Midianite oppression. The angel of the Lord tells Gideon, who is no warrior, "The Lord is with you (singular), you mighty warrior." Gideon misinterprets the statement, and responds that there seems to be little proof that the Lord is with the people ("us"). The Lord ("the angel of" part has dropped) responds, "Go in this might of yours and deliver from the hand of Midian, I hereby commission you." Gideon answers that he is the least member of the weakest tribe of Manasseh - again, he does not seem to be a mighty warrior at all. The Lord asserts that he will be with Gideon as he strikes down the Israelites. This is apparently enough to convince Gideon, who tells God to stay put as he runs to his house to fetch a present.

Gideon prepares a kid and unleavened cakes for the Lord, and brings them out along with the broth. The angel of God (now again an angel, and now "God" rather than "the Lord") commands him to put the food on the rock and pour out the broth. The angel of the Lord (now "the Lord") touches the food and fire springs up to consume the food - in much the same way food is sacrificed by priests to God. The angel disappears.

Gideon freaks out, having just seen the face of God, but the Lord reassures him that he will not die. Gideon builds an altar at the place of his theophany and calls it "The Lord is Peace."

That night the Lord commands Gideon pull down the altar of Baal (the Canaanite storm god) and cut down the sacred pole beside it. He is to build an altar atop the stronghold there and make a burnt offering with the wood from the pole and a bull of his father's. Afraid of getting caught, Gideon does this that night, along with ten of his servants.

Gideon Destroys the Altar of Baal: Judges 6.28-35
When word gets out that Gideon destroyed the altar of Baal, the townspeople want to kill him. But his father Joash comes to his rescue, saying if Baal is a God he can contend for himself. From that day forward Gideon is called Jerubbaal: "Let Baal contend against him."

When the Midianites and the Amalekites and people from the east come to camp against Israel, the spirit of the Lord takes possession of Gideon as was promised. Gideon sounds the trumpet, summoning first his clan the Abiezrites, then all of Manasseh, then Asher, Zebulun, and Naphtali.

The Sign of the Fleece: Judges 6.36-40
Gideon devises a test to see whether God will deliver Israel by his hand. Gideon puts a fleece out at night and says to God that if there is dew on it in the morning, but none on the ground, God will deliver Israel by God's hand. In the morning there is no dew on the ground but the fleece pours out enough water to fill a bowl. Gideon then begs the Lord to do the trick in reverse, so that the fleece stays dry as the ground gathers dew. This too the Lord does.

Judges 4-5: Deborah

Judges 4: Deborah and Barak
Judges 5: The Song of Deborah

Judges 4 and 5 offer two different accounts of the same story, the first in prose and the other in poetry. The long poem that comprises the song of Deborah is a much earlier work, and the preceding prose narrative is probably based off of it. There are some key differences in the two accounts, though they are quite similar to one another.

Deborah and Barack begins "The Israelites again did what was evil in the sight of the Lord, after Ehud died." But the text immediately preceding this places Shamgar between Ehud and Deborah. Indeed, Shamgar's placement is confusing, especially because the account of his leadership is so brief. Probably he was inserted between the stories of Ehud and Deborah after these stories had been established in the bible.

Deborah and BarakJudges 4
For the Israelites' apostasy, the Lord hands them over to King Jabin of Canaan, who has oppressed the Israelites cruelly for 20 years and has 900 chariots of iron. The commander of his army is Sisera.

At this time Deborah, a prophetess, wife of Lappidoth, judges Israel. She summons Barak son of Abinoam, of the tribe of Naphtali, to tell him that the Lord has commanded him to bring 10,000 men from Naphtali and Zebuln to Mount Tabor. The Lord will have the Israelites defeat Sisera at the Wadi Kishon.

Barak says he will only go if Deborah accompanies him, and she agrees to do so, but warns, "the road on which you are going will not lead to your glory, for the Lord will sell Sisera into the hand of a woman" (Judg. 4.9). This prophecy (or foreshadowing, for the author) will prove to be true, but not in the way the reader will expect.

A side note then informs us:

Now Heber the Kenite had separated from the other Kenites, that is, the descendants of Hobab the father-in-law of Moses, and had encamped as far away as Elon-bezaanannim, which is near Kedesh.
(Judg. 4.11)

You might be wondering, "What in the world does that have to do with the story? The answer is "probably a lot." When the biblical author introduces information, it is always with good reason. A note like this would not exist without good reason.

When Sisera hears Barak is near, he summons his 900 chariots and all his men, and go to meet the Israelite. The Lord throws his army into a panic before Barak, and the Canaanites are all struck down as they flee in their chariots. But Sisera dismounts and flees on foot toward the tent of Jael wife of Heber the Kenite. King Jabin is at peace with Heber, so this seems like a good place to go.

Jael invites Sisera in and covers him with a rug. When he asks for water she gives him milk, a sign of great hospitality. Sisera then asks that Jael not tell anyone he is there. When he falls asleep, Jael takes a tent peg and a hammer, and drives the peg into Sisera's temple, until it goes into the ground. Barak comes in hot pursuit, to find his enemy dead, fallen by the hand of a woman.

The Israelites then fight until they destroy King Jabin.

The Song of DeborahJudges 5
The first verse informs us that Deborah and Barak "sang," but the verb is singular, so probably only Deborah sang this song.

The song blesses and praises the Lord, describing his power over nature and his prowess in battle. And - look at this! - Shamgar is mentioned in verse 6: "In the days of Shamgar son of Anath, / in the days of Jael, caravans ceased / and travelers kept to the byways." But wait a minute. Shamgar doesn't sound like an Israelite at all! And he probably isn't.

In any case, Deborah is praised for causing the peasantry to prosper and grow fat on plunder. She arises "as a mother" to the people. Indeed, this seems to be a song reprimanding the rich and championing the poor peasants of Israel. Israel did not have the aristocratic shields and spears to fight with. They did not ride on white donkeys or sit on rich carpets. Yet they march to conquer a great army. Well, not all of them march. Ephraim, Benjamin, Zebulun, and Isaachar are praised for their actions. The other tribes are chided for their inaction: Reuben tarried and searched its heart. Gilead, Dan, and Asher stay put. Zebulun and Naphtali both "scorned death."

The author then presents an image of divine war, a sort of "on earth as it is in heaven." As the kings fight at Taanach, by the waters of Megiddo, the stars fight from heaven against Sisera. This is the abstraction of the Lord's army made concrete.

The narrator then describes a scene that we did not see in the prose account: "The torrent Kishon swept them away, the onrushing torrent, the torrent Kishon." This account seems remarkably similar to the escape from Egypt, as Israel's enemies are thrown into a panic and defeated with a rush of water. It can be said to recallthat event.

The song curses"Meroz" because they did not help the Lord. What city or clan this was, or their relationship with Israel, is unknown.

The poem then praises Jael for her actions and recounts her slaying Sisera in classic biblical poetry:

He asked water and she gave him milk,
she brought him curds in a lordly bowl

This emphasizes Jael's hospitality through climatic parallelism, as the object delivered increases in richness from water to milk to "curds in a lordly bowl."

She put her hand to the tent peg
and her right hand to the workmen's mallet

This parallelism seems to increase in specificity and greatness. It was not just any hand, but the right hand. It was not only a tent peg, but actually a workmen's mallet. (This has implications for the prose account, in which it is said she grabs both. Perhaps this is a misinterpretation of biblical poetry on mine or the author's part. We shall probably never know, though.)

she struck Sisera a blow,
she crushed his head,
she shattered and pierced his temple

Again, these parallel verses increase in specificity.

He sank, he fell,
he lay still at her feet;
at her feet he sank, he fell;
where he sank, there he fell dead.

In this parallel structure, the content is not changed, but is rather rearranged. We do not receive any new information; instead the death is emphasized and dwelled upon.

We then get a poignant account of Sisera's mother looking out the window, wondering why her son is not home. Her ladies answer for her - or does she answer herself? They are surely finding and dividing the spoil, a girl or two for every man and other splendors. And of course, Sisera has not gotten a woman in battle; a woman has gotten him.

"And the land had rest forty years."

Judges 3: Gruesome Judges

Judges 3: Nations Remaining in the Land / Othniel / Ehud / Shamgar

We begin the tale of the judges of Israel with three judges in particular

Nations Remaining in the Land: Judges 3.1-6
The nations that are left in Canaan are listed, but the reason for their their existence (and therefore Israel's failure to drive them out in the Joshua generation) is the matter of some debate. The biblical author asserts that the Canaanites are there to test the Israelites. But the first reason given in verse 2 is that the new generation should learn war. Verse 4, however, asserts that these people are there "for the testing of Israel, to know whether Israel would obey the commandments of the Lord, which he commanded their ancestors by Moses" (Judg. 3.4). So are the foreign people there to tempt the Israelites or to teach them war? Or both?

Or perhaps both are true, because living among the people inevitably leads to warfare, as described in the unfaithfulness cycle:

1. The Israelites abandon the Lord, the God of their ancestors, for other gods (also known as apostasy
2. The Lord is angered
3. The Lord gives the Israelites over to their enemies (the Israelites are plundered, enslaved, etc.) as he promised.
4. The Lord raises up a judge to save the Israelites
5. The Israelites
1. Listen to the judge and be delivered from their enemies by the hand of the Lord
2. Do not listen and suffer the consequences
6. The judge dies
7. The people relapse and behave worse than their ancestors.

The Israelites are prone to lapses in judgement, according to the biblical author. Through intermarriage, or exogamy they find themselves lapsing into the worst sin, apostasy (the worship of foreign gods).

Othniel Judges 3.7-11
Check out the unfaithfulness cycle in action: The Israelites forget the Lord and worship other gods (Baal and the Asherahs*). The Lord becomes angry and sells them to King Cushan-rishathaim of Aram-naharaim, whom they serve eight years. When the Israelites cry out to the Lord, the Lord gives them a deliverer: Othniel son of Kenaz, Caleb's younger brother. With the spirit of the Lord upon him, Othniel leads the people in war against Cushan-rishathaim, and the land has rest for forty years.

*Baal is a Canaanite storm god. Asherah is a Canaanite fertility goddess.

Ehud: Judges 3.12-30
The Judges of Israel have remarkably rich and gruesome stories attached to them. Case in point: Ehud.

After the Israelites again fall out of God's favor, King Eglon defeats the nation so that the Israelites must serve him 18 years. When they finally cry out to the Lord, the left-handed Benjaminite (this detail is important) comes to deliver Israel. Ehud constructs a double-edged sword, one cubit in length, and conceals it by fastening it to his right thigh. [Note: Normally people would wear a sword on the left side, so that it could be easily grabbed with the right hand.]

Ehud presents tribute to King Eglon - a very fat man - in Moab. When the tribute is finished, Ehud sends his people away, goes with them a short way, and then returns to tell the king he has a secret. King Eglon sends his people away so that the two of them are alone.

Ehud approaches King Eglon, who is sitting alone in his cool roof chamber, and tells him, "I have a message from God for you." When King Eglon stands, Ehud grabs the concealed sword and drives it to the hilt into King Eglon's belly, at which point King Eglon loses control of his bowels [literally: "and the dirt came out"]. Ehud exits and locks the door behind him.

King Eglon's servants approach, are tipped off by the smell, and sheepishly wait for him to come out from relieving himself in the room. When they become embarrassed, they open the door to find their Lord lying dead on the floor. [This story really makes an effort to embarrass those pesky Moabites!]

By this point Ehud has escaped and sends the Israelites down to the Land of the Moabites. They siege the fords of the Jordan so no one may cross, and kill ten thousand Moabites, all strong, able-bodied men.

Ehud seems to have been a better judge than Othniel, for after him the land has rest for eight years, twice that of his predecessor.

Shamgar: Judges 3.31
Sometimes at the end of a post or after a particularly difficult day I just don't feel like writing anymore. It's a good thing that Shamgar only gets a two-sentence treatment by the biblical author:

"After him came Shamgar son of Anath, who killed six hundred of the Philistines with an oxgoad. He too delivered Israel."

Why is his description so short? We don't know for sure, but it might have something to do with the fact that his name isn't Semitic. Perhaps he was a mercenary? In any case, his name rounds out the number of judges to a "perfect" twelve.

Oh, and killing six-hundred Philistines with an oxgoad? That's pretty awesome. That's some Chuck Norris stuff right there.

Judges 2: Disobedient, Unfaithful

Judges 2: Israel's Disobedience / Death of Joshua / Israel's Unfaithfulness

Israel's Disobedience: Judges 2.1-5
The angel of the Lord comes down to Israel to tell them of what is in store for them. The Israelites were commanded to remain completely separate from the nations residing in the promised land - to avoid making covenants with them and to tear down their altars. This was their agreement with God. However, the Israelites did not keep up their end of the bargain, so the inhabitants of the land will become adversaries, and their gods will ensnare the people.

This explains pretty well the reason for everything that lies ahead, the difficulties of conquering the promised land. In the bible, God is the foremost actor. If something happens, it is probably the doing of the Lord.

Death of Joshua Judges 2.6-10
This takes us back to Joshua's death, with the added information that:

1. Joshua died at age 110
2. After Joshua's generation dies out, a new generation grows up that does not know the Lord or the way he has aided Israel.

This last point is especially important to keep in mind in considering the larger biblical narrative informed by dialectical tensions. These tensions between Israel and God give shape to the bible, and generally do a good job at keeping things interesting.

Israel's UnfaithfulnessJudges 2.11-23
The biblical author here reveals the general framework for the cyclical pattern of judges:

1. The Israelites abandon the Lord, the God of their ancestors, for other gods (also known as apostasy
2. The Lord is angered
3. The Lord gives the Israelites over to their enemies (the Israelites are plundered, enslaved, etc.) as he promised.
4. The Lord raises up a judge to save the Israelites
5. The Israelites
1. Listen to the judge and be delivered from their enemies by the hand of the Lord
2. Do not listen and suffer the consequences
6. The judge dies
7. The people relapse and behave worse than their ancestors.

The Lord therefore stops driving the "foreign" nations from the promised land. In this way the Lord is said to "test" Israel, "whether or not they would take care to walk in the way of the Lord as their ancestors did" (Judg. 2.22).

This wraps up very succinctly the cycle we will see for the rest of the book.

Judges 1: Contradictions (not that there's anything wrong with that)

-or-
Quantum Physics and the Bible

Judges 1: Israel's Failure to Complete the Conquest of Canaan

Today we begin the book of Judges, most of which is concerned with the fact that Israel did not completely conquer the promised land. How does the author deal with this when this was God's promise? As stated in yesterday's post, the author has the Lord continue to push Israel's enemies out of the land. This action is conditional, however, relying on Israel's strict obedience to God's commands. Dialectical tensions, forces that informs the bible as a whole, will be especially evident in the reading, especially as Israel comes to be led by "judges" that seem to alternate between good and bad, obedience and disobedience.

Today's reading tracks the continued conquest of Israel in Canaan, the promised land. By today's standards it is a contradictory account, running against both the book of Joshua and itself. To the original audience the things we would call "contradictions" were not the most important consideration. The bible was to them a cohesive whole.

Israel's Failure to Complete the Conquest of Canaan: Judges 1

Unlike Moses, Joshua did not choose a centralized leader for after his death. Why should he, when the land is divided up and the Israelite tribes should be autonomous, operating under the code of God's law? Still, Israel faces enemies. What are they to do?

The first verse states that the Israelites directly inquire of the Lord who should fight against the Canaanites. This is a remarkable break from the past, when communication with God was limited to an intermediary like Moses. Now that there is no leader of the Israelites, they may speak with God directly.

God responds that Judah should go, and Judah takes Simeon along with it. The two tribes defeat ten thousand Canaanits and Perizzites at Bezek. King Adoni-bezek escapes from the battle and flees. Judah and Simeon pursue him, catch him, and cut off his thumbs and big toes. This is a suitable punishment and seems divinely retributive: Adoni-bezek tells of how he had seventy thumbless, big toeless kings picking up scraps under his table. Go figure.

Judah then takes Jerusalem, kills all the people, and sets the city on fire. After that, Judah defeats Sheshai and Ahiman at Talmai; a repetition of a story from Joshua. Indeed, the repetition continues, as Caleb offers his daughter to whoever takes Kiriath-sepher. Othniel again takes the land, and Caleb's daughter Achsah again undermines the sex-marriage economy when she asks for and is given land as a present (again after dismounting her donkey).

Just one problem: This has all already happened. How could it have happened twice?

The bible does not shy away from ambiguities and contradictions. These parallel stories for the author were not necessarily contradictory. The chronology does not seem to matter so much as the story.

So what are we to make of other internal contradictions? Verse 21 informs us, "But the Benjaminites did not drive out the Jebusites who lived in Jerusalem; so the Jebusites have lived in Jerusalem to this day. How could this be possible if verse 8 is also true: "Then the people of Judah fought against Jerusalem and took it. They put it to the sword and set the city to fire."?

Maybe a brief physics lesson will help. Light has a dual nature, acting either as a wave or as particles depending on how you examine it. Certain experiments will tell you that light is comprised of photons that, while they don't have mass, at least have momentum. Others will tell you that it is a wave; massless energy. We know that light exists, but if we look at it a different way, it seems to take on a different nature. In the same way, we know these bibical stories exist, but if we look at them in a different way, they take on different natures. Biblical stories mean different things depending on the context in which they are told. The same story of Caleb and Achsah takes on different meaning when it is placed in two different locations - when the conditions of the experiment are different. And the biblical author clearly accepted the story as true, even though it appears differently in different places.

Quantum physicist Neils Bohr once said, "If quantum mechanics hasn't profoundly shocked you, you haven't understood it yet.

It's a little like that.

In any case, there are many failed attempts to drive Israel's enemies from the land. The Rahab story appears again, a briefer version with different characters. But the reader understands the story because it is a type scene. The reader understands that this story has occurred somewhere before. The author, therefore, is not required to include all the details of the original story, because it is supposed the reader will understand.

The reader-author relationship...It's a strange thing indeed.

Joshua 23-24: The Settled Land

Joshua 23: Joshua Exhorts the People
Joshua 24: The Tribes Renew the Covenant / Death of Joshua and Eleazar

With the end of Joshua comes the end of a narrative that began way, way back in Bereshit (Genesis), the first book of the Hebrew bible. The promise of land and progeny that was made to Abraham has finally been fulfilled. And at the end of the chapter, in the penultimate verse, a plotline is ended that I completely forgot about. But you're going to have to read to the end of the post to find out what it is.

Today's scenes take place "a long time afterward, when the Lord had given rest to Israel from all their enemies all around, and Joshua was old and well advanced in years" (Josh. 23.1). We can feel the Joshua narrative starting to wind down. True, not all the land has been conquered. But Joshua's speech exhorting the people serves as a succinct summary of the events of the book that bears his name.

Joshua Exhorts the People: Joshua 23
The land is at rest and Joshua is old. He therefore starts to tidy up matters before he goes, starting with a recap of battle and ending (in the next chapter) in a renewal of the covenant.

YHWH Sabaoth, God portrayed as mighty warrior, is invoked four times throughout Joshua's exhortation, reminding the people that Israel's victory would not have been possible without God, because it is God that drove out the mighty nations before them.

And yet not all the nations have been cleared out. They still remain in the land and threaten to tempt the Israelites into apostasy. Israel receives a strong warning not to intermarry or fall into their ways, and if they remain faithful to God then God will continue to force these people out of the land. In the meantime, these people are given to Israel as part of a package deal; they are included with Israel's inheritance of land.

The biblical author tries to balance two contradictory ideas. There is the ancient myth (as in story, not falsehood) of Israel's might, which serves as a basis for Israel's divine right to the promised land. This is where the story of conquering all the tribes of the land comes from. This must be counterbalanced with the reality that the Israelites coexisted with foreign nations and had in fact done so for a long time. The way the biblical author solves this problem is by having God essentially say: "Here is what I promised you. It is not exactly as I promised you because I have not removed all your enemies yet. However, if you continue to obey me, these people will one day be gone and you alone (with the Gibeonites, perhaps shall inhabit the land." The conditionality of this agreement is especially important, because it is the tension between God and humankind that comprises the biblical story. If you want a twist in the biblical plot, just look for people disobeying the Lord's commands.

Joshua then switches gears into his own personal reflection, which then flares out to embrace all the people of Israel and remind them to follow the covenant of the Lord:

And now I am about to go the way of all the earth, and you know in your hearts and souls, all of you, that not one thing has failed of all the good things that the Lord your God promised concerning you; all have come to pass for you, not one of them has failed. But just as all the good things that the Lord your God promised concerning you have been fulfilled for you, so the Lord will bring upon you all the bad things, until he has destroyed you from this good land that the Lord your God has given you. If you transgress the covenant of the Lord your God, which he enjoined on you, and go and serve other gods and bow down to them, then the anger of the Lord will be kindled against you, and you shall perish quickly from the good land that he has given to you.
(Josh. 23.14-16)

The next logical step is to renew the covenant Joshua just invoked.

The Tribes Renew the Covenant: Joshua 24.1-28
Joshua gathers all of Israel to Shechem in order to recount (speaking through the words of the Lord) their collective history. Actually, if you're interested in a Clif Notes version of the biblical narrative up until this point, Joshua 24 would be an excellent place to look.

It goes down like this: Abraham is taken from beyond the River Jordan into Canaan. The Lord give him Isaac. The Lord gives Isaac two sons: Esau, who inhabits the hill country, and Jacob, who goes with his children down to Egypt. The Israelites (though they are not referred to as such here) are brought out of Egypt, where God has worked many miracles. The Israelites are pursued, and cry out to the Lord at the Red Sea. The Lord protects the people and helps them cross the sea. The Israelites live in the wilderness for a long time. They then conquer the Amorites and are blessed - not cursed - by Balaam. After crossign the Jordan, the Lord conquers a number of people on behalf of the Israelites. The land they have received is exceptional:

I gave you a land on which you had not labored, and towns that you had not built, and you live in them; you eat the fruit of vineyards and oliveyards that you did not plant.
(Josh. 24.13)

For all this, the Israelites are commanded to revere and serve the Lord, not the gods that their ancestors served beyond the river before Abraham, nor the gods of the Amorites.

The people respond that they will serve the lord, recounting very succinctly the history that the Lord just spoke through Joshua. Joshua warns that the Lord is holy and jealous, and will not forgive transgressions: "If you forsake the Lord and serve foreign gods, then he will turn and do you harm, and consume you, after having done you good" (Josh. 24.20). A second time the people promise to serve the Lord.

Joshua then tells the people that they are all witnesses among themselves. They agree. He tells them that they must put away all their foreign gods and "incline your hearts to the Lord, the God of Israel." To this too they agree. The Israelites have devoted themselves to the Lord.

Joshua then makes a covenant with the people, writing the words he spoke in the book of the law of God. He erects a stone under the oak tree in the sanctuary of the Lord. The stone serves as a second witness against the people if they deal falsely with God.

Death of Joshua and Eleazar: Joshua 24.29-33
Joshua dies and is buried. The author recounts that Israel was faithful to God all the days of his leadership, and all the days of the elders that outlived him.

Here ends a plot line that began a very long time ago: The bones of Joseph, which he wanted to be buried in the promised land, are finally laid to rest at Shechem on a piece of land that Jacob bought from the children of Hamor, the father of Shechem.

Finally, Eleazar son of Aaron dies and is buried.

After the death of the old generation comes a new generation, which will be explored tomorrow as we begin our study of the book of Judges.

Joshua 22: When an altar isn't an altar

Joshua 22: The Eastern Tribes Return to Their Territory / A Memorial Altar East of the Jordan


Sometimes a cigar is just a cigar.
-Freud

Sometimes a cigar is just a cigar - and sometimes an altar is not quite an altar. In today's reading we analyze the meaning of symbols. Does an altar necessarily have to be for sacrifice? Could it be simply cosmetic or symbolic? Is an altar on which no sacrifice is offered still an altar after all?

The Eastern Tribes Return to Their Territory: Joshua 22.1-9
Because of their observance of all the commands of Joshua and Moses, and because the Lord has bestowed peace on the current generation, Joshua allows the Reubenits, Gadites, and half of the Manassites to return to their land east of the Jordan. Joshua blesses them and sends them away to their tents, urging them:

Take good care to observe the commandment and instruction that Moses the servant of the Lord commanded you, to love the Lord your God, to walk in all his ways, to keep his commandments, and to hold fast to him, and to serve him with all your heart and with all your soul.
(Joshua 22.5)

This exact command will be important later on, creating tension between the Israelites east and west of the Jordan.

The author then tells us that Moses gave one half of the tribe of Manasseh land in the east, but Joshua gave possession to the other half in the west. This is likely an etiological note to explain the placement of the tribe of Manasseh at the time of writing.

The eastern tribes return to their families across the river carrying a wealth of metals, livestock, and clothing - the spoils of war.

A Memorial Altar East of the Jordan: Joshua 22.10-34
The narration then switches to follow the eastern tribes as they make their way home. When they come to the Jordan, they build a large altar on the west side, in Canaan. Thought these tribe were commanded above to observe the commandments of the Lord, they have seemingly failed to heed the command of centralized worship that outlaws other altars.

When the Israelites to the west of the Jordan see the altar, they prepare for war against the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and Manasseh. The people send Phinehas and ten chiefs to speak with the eastern tribes. The congregation accuses the eastern tribes of apostasy - rebelling against the word of God by creating their own second altar. This is an important time for Israel indeed; violence and bloodshed have stopped, and the people are not quite yet cleansed of the sin of Peor. This would be a bad time to anger God, who would destroy all of Israel for the wrongdoing of a few. [Interestingly God as a character is entirely absent from this story - so God's view on this cannot be not known]

The eastern tribe respond that God knows the true meaning of the altar - remembrance. No sacrifices will be made on the altar. Rather, it is built as a witness between the eastern and western tribes that they all perform service before the Lord. The Jordan may divide the two parts of Israel, but they are united under God. The eastern tribes fear that the western tribes will forget this and treat those across the Jordan differently, so this altar is to serve as a witness between the two.

The response is quite repetitive, which you might have gleaned from my description. It is structured around the three-fold repetition of sacrifice, which is precisely what is outlawed by God and precisely what the eastern tribes wish to convince the western tribes that they will not do.

Phinehas and the priests are satisfied with the answer, as are the rest of the Israelites when word returns to them. The altar is called "Witness," for "it is a witness between us that the Lord is God."

Clearly the Israelites east of the Jordan believe that altars can be symbolic. They do not have to be altars at all, but an altar-shaped structure that serves as a witness, a reminder of the cohesion between the two tribes. I would not even call this an altar at all, but an altar-shaped symbol between tribes on either side of the Jordan.

Joshua 20-21: Fulfilling Commandments

Joshua 20: Cities of Refuge
Joshua 21: Cities allotted to the Levites

Both of the chapters examined today are in fulfillment of older legislation from Exodus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy. It is a logical ending to the story of the covenant that started way back in Genesis with Abraham. Today we come very close to the end of that story, and indeed the biblical author speaks of the fulfillment of that Abrahamic covenant.

Cities of Refuge: Joshua 20
The cities of refuge, ordered in Numbers and Deuteronomy are now established in the promised land. Anyone who accidentally kills another may flee to the nearest city and be protected from the avenger of blood. After a trial, the accidental killer may return to the town in which the killing occurred only once the high priest that presided at the time of the killing has died.

The cities include:

1. Kedesh in Galilee (Naphtali territory)
2. Shechem (Ephraim territory)
3. Kiriath-arba (AKA Hebron; Judah Territory
4. Bezer (beyond the Jordan in Reuben Territory)
5. Ramoth in Gilead (beyond the Jordan in Gad Territory)
6. Golan in Bashan (beyond the Jordan in Manasseh Territory)

Cities allotted to the Levites: Joshua 21
The Levites receive their land, which includes the cities of refuge. Each town is surrounded by pastureland in fulfillment with earlier legislation.

Finally all the land has been doled out; the promise of the first divine covenant - the one of land and progeny - has been fulfilled.

Thus the Lord gave to Israel all the land that he swore to their ancestors that he would give them; and having taken possession of it, they settled there. And the Lord gave them rest on every side just as he had sworn to their ancestors; not one of all their enemies had withstood them, for the Lord had given all their enemies into their hands. Not one of all the good promises that the Lord had made to the house of Israel had failed; all came to pass.
(Joshua 21.43-45)

How long will this peace last? Not very long at all. But the Lord has indeed given Israel all that he has promised. It may have taken a few entire books to complete, but the original covenant of land and progeny, promised as far back as Abraham, has finally been fulfilled.