Joshua 4-5: Dissecting scenes

Joshua 4: Twelve Stones Set Up at Gilgal
Joshua 5: The New Generation Circumcised / The Passover at Gilgal / Joshua's Vision

As we read of Israel's crossing the Jordan in yesterday's reading, the parallel with the previous generation's crossing of the Red Sea became apparent. Today the parallel continues, as Israel finds itself on the opposite bank and the water close back in.

Twelve Stones Set Up at Gilgal: Joshua 4
When the entire nation completes its crossing, the Lord commands Joshua to select 12 men, one from each tribe, and command them to each take a stone from the middle of the Jordan where the priests' feet stood, and lay them down in the camp. Joshua commands this, telling the men the reason for the action is as a remembrance for future generations of when the Lord cut off the waters. The stones will serve as a memorial. In an interesting twist, the language seems to indicate that the fetching of the rocks happens as the stream is crossed, not after. More on this later.

A strange (and seemingly contradictory) etiological note then informs the reader that Joshua set up twelve stones in the middle of the Jordan, where the priests stood. There seems here to be a mixing of traditions: one in which the stones are in the river and another in which they are in the camp. The two tales probably appear right next to each other because to the biblical author they represent a very similar idea within the same story - much as the Noah narrative mixes contradictory narratives to form a cohesive whole.

We then take a step back in time to again watch the people cross the Jordan "in haste." [Chronology and location within this passage are sketchy - likely the author is combining multiple traditions.] The priests, bearing the ark, are then said to have "crossed over in front of the people," which would be a pretty difficult taken literally. However, the biblical author takes a view of biblical narrative that all accounts are equally valid. Therefore there is nothing wrong with a mixing of traditions. In fact, it shows that multiple sources (each considered true) are backing the author up!

The account then shifts again to a militaristic crossing: "About forty thousand armed for war crossed over before the Lord to the plains of Jericho for battle" (Josh. 4.13).

A brief insertion then informs us that that same day the Lord exalts Joshua and the people stand in awe of him, as they stood in awe of Moses.

Once Israel has crossed (finally) the priests journey out with the ark, and when they touch dry ground the water resumes its normal flow.

The people crossed the Jordan on the tenth day of the first month, and camp in Gilgal on the eastern border of Jericho.

We are left with a second reminder of the meaning of the twelve stones:

"For the Lord your God dried up the waters of the Jordan for you until you crossed over, as the Lord your God did to the Red Sea, which he dried up for us until we crossed over."
(Josh. 4.23)

Have we heard this anywhere before? Maybe in the words of Rahab in Joshua 2?

"For we have heard how the Lord dried up the water of the Red Sea before you when you came out of Egypt."
(Josh. 1.10)

This clever device is known as "dialogue-bound" narration - akin to envelope structure (AKA pastrami sandwich structure). The narrative is bound by dialogue that expresses the same idea on either side. The narrative is clearly demarcated by the recalled Red Sea crossing. The fact that the author chooses this event to mark off the narrative indicates that the author understands the similarity and helps to tie the two evens together - both as miraculous acts of God delivering his people from a hostile land. Indeed, the people are delivered,

"So that all the peoples of the earth may know that the hand of the Lord is mighty, and so that you may fear the Lord your God forever.
(Josh. 4.24)

The New Generation Circumcised: Joshua 5.1-9
It turns out boundary for the dialogue-bound narration is further explicated:

When all the kings of the Amorites beyond the Jordan to the west, and all the kings of the Canaanites by the sea, heard that the Lord had dried up the waters of the Jordan for the Israelites until they had crossed over, their hearts melted, and there was no longer any spirit in them, because of the Israelites.
(Josh. 5.1).

Rahab had something to say about this in Joshua 2:

"As soon as we heard [of the crossing the Red Sea and the Israelites' might in battle], our hearts melted, and there was no courage left in any of us because of you."

My, that all ties up nicely, wouldn't you say?

In any case, the new generation must be circumcised, because the practice was put on hold in the wilderness. Joshua circumcises all the men, and they remain in camp until they are healed. This etiological story explains the naming of Gibeath-haaraloth, literally meaning "foreskin hill." It also explains the naming of Gilgal, a word related to "roll," because that is where the Lord tells Joshua, "Today I have rolled away from you the disgrace of Egypt."

The Passover at Gilgal: Joshua 5.10-12
The Israelites hold the passover in the plains of Jericho. After that day, the manna ceases to fall, and the Israelites officially begin to eat the produce of the land.

Joshua's Vision: Joshua 5.13-15
One day Joshua is by Jericho when he sees a man with a drawn sword in hand. Joshua asks, "Are you one of us, or one of our adversaries?" The man replies, "Neither; but as commander of the army of the Lord I have now come."

Joshua falls to his face and worships, asking the man what he commands. The commander responds, "Remove the sandals from your feet, for the place where you stand is holy."

The sandal removal scene is a type scene intended to show the similarities between Moses and Joshua. Just as Moses led Israel across the Red Sea, so Joshua led Israel across the Jordan. Just as Moses removes his sandals when he encounters the burning bush, so Joshua removes his sandals when he encounters the commander of the Lord's army.

Exodus 15.1-21 Redux

I apologize for the lack of analysis last night. Poetry is a pretty hefty topic to introduce and analyze all at once. Today I am going to take a step back and analyze the poetry introduced yesterday. Check out that post if you haven't yet - it has a lot of important information regarding today's post.

Also, if you cannot tell, I am having problems with font and formatting, because I generally type my blog in Microsoft Word or TextEdit, then copy and paste it here. Today's post is all typed in Blogger, for a change. Someday I might go back and reformat all the entries. In any case, it's something always in the back of my mind.

One thing I forgot to mention last night is that the easiest way to remember chiasmus is to think of the famous line from John F. Kennedy's inaugural address:

Ask not what your country can do for you—

ask what you can do for your country.

The "ask" parts provide the topical parallelism necessary for cohesiveness, while the you/you, country/country creates the chiasmus. Chiasmus comes from the Greek letter "chi," represented by an "X." In chiasmus, the equivalent words or phrases form an X:

your country can do for you

X

you can do for your country

Let's get going.

The Song of Moses: Exodus 15.1-19

The song/poem opens with a cast list: Moses and the Israelites. Even if the poem was not originally written by Moses, for biblical authors the attribution is important. The poem refers to events that have not happened yet. This does not indicate that it was written later than the rest of the text - in fact, it has many influences that seem to predate the rest of the narrative. Rather, this poem was inserted because it is an additional telling of the escape from Egypt, just as "true" as the others.

"Stanza" One
Distich one displays the Lord triumphing over the Egyptians. Distich two takes the idea of triumph and personalizes it: "The Lord is my strength, and my might...my salvation." The third distich continues to play on the theme and personalizes it further, going from God's characteristics to God himself: "my God...my father's God." The last distich gives two labels to God. The first, God as warrior, is implied in the narrative. The second, God as YHWH, or Lord, is explicit in the narrative (Ex. 3.13-15; "The Divine Name Revealed").

"Stanza" Two
Distich one demonstrates synonymous parallelism, except it's a little more than synonymous. Really, the second half of the distich gives specific examples of the generalized first half. The second distich parallels the first.

The third distich demonstrates emblematic parallelism. The hand that is "glorious in power," an abstract manifestation, makes a physical gesture: "shattered the enemy." The next distich contains synonymous parallelism. The two following it serve mostly as narrative.

"Stanza" Three
The reference to the earth swallowing the Egyptians may indicate a belief in the underworld. The dead Egyptians are taken under the earth, to the afterlife.

"Stanza" Four
The first distich of "stanza" four is composed with a sort of hybrid chiasmus-synthetic parallelism:

In your steadfast love...you led them

X

you guided them...by your strength

Chiasmus: Highlighted in red and green: [aspect of God]/guidance
Synthetic: "Love" to "strength"

Distich three is a unique three-line distich, arranged by chiasmus alternating the people of various parts of the Promised Land and their fear:

Chiefs of Edom...dismayed

X

tremblimg...leaders of Moab

X

all the inhabitants of Canaan...melted away [with fear?]

That's pretty cool. At least I think so.

Exodus 13.17-15.21

The Pillars of Cloud and Fire / Crossing the Red Sea / The Pursuers Drowned

The Pillars of Cloud and Fire: Exodus 13.1-22

Through it would be more convenient for the Israelites to travel through the land of the Philistines, God had them go in a roundabout way toward the Red Sea. This way they will not experience war and wish to return to Egypt. Despite this, Exodus 13.18 tells that the Israelites prepared for battle anyway.

Moses brings Joseph’s bones along, because he had required an oath from the Israelites, saying:

“God will surely take notice of you, and then you must carry my bones with you from here.” (Ex. 13.19)

This is fairly accurate. Compare to Genesis 50.24-25:

Then Joseph said to his brothers, “I am about to die; but God will surely come to you, and bring you up out of this land to the land that he swore to Abraham, to Isaac, and to Jacob.” So Joseph made the Israelites swear, saying, “When God comes to you, you shall carry up my bones from here.”

(Gen. 50.24-25)

The Israelites set off from Succoth and camp at Etham. The Lord leads them in a pillar of cloud by day, and a pillar of fire by night, so that they can travel with light all the time.

Crossing the Red Sea: Exodus 14.1-25

Important Stuff

Red Sea: Also, Reed Sea. We don’t know if it was actually the Red Sea that the Israelites crossed. It might have been one of the bitter lakes, or even a marsh or lagoon off the Mediterranean Sea (a “sea of reeds”). This label may have been given because it was easily recognizable to a vast audience. Few of the other locations in Exodus are known today.

This section gives the first glimpse of one of the many characterizations of God: God as divine warrior. God fights for his people Israel against the forces of evil. The divine warrior motif will feature prominently in later books, so keep your eye out for it. Notice also that at times God acts independently of Moses, and sometimes with Moses as an intermediary. This also occurred throughout the plague narrative. God does not seem to need Moses to work miracles, but it certainly seems to help to have someone on the ground communicating for you.

God orchestrates a wonderful show here: baiting Pharaoh before destroying his entire Army. His intention is to show Egypt his power, and in the process creates a wonderful story for the Israelites, one that is undoubtedly passed down for gener– oh hey, we’re reading it today!

The Story

The Lord tells Moses to tell the Egyptians to double back so that Pharaoh believes the Israelites are lost in the wilderness. God will harden Pharaoh’s heart so that he pursues Israel. As with the plagues, the result is that God proves his greatness to Pharaoh and the Egyptians:

I will harden Pharaoh’s heart, and he will pursue them, so that I will gain glory for myself over Pharaoh and all his army; and the Egyptians shall know that I am the Lord…

(Ex. 14.4)

Pharaoh is told that “the people had fled” and realizing along with his officials that he has made a mistake, Pharaoh sets out to pursue him. [The fact that the Israelites flee, rather than being hurried out, may indicate a separate tradition. Of course, it might also indicate that Pharaoh simply realizes the Israelites have been gone more than three days (as requested) and in fact have no intention of returning]

Pharaoh sets off with his army and 600 “picked” (designated?) chariots as well as... well, the rest of the chariots of Egypt (Ex. 14.7). The Lord hardens Pharaohs heart for the pursuit.

The Israelites see Pharaoh bearing down on them and cry out o the Lord. They also cry to Moses in harsh words:

They said to Moses, “Was it because there were no graves in Egypt that you have taken us away to die in the wilderness? What have you done to us, bringing us out of Egypt? Is this not the very thing we told you in Egypt, ‘Let us alone and let us serve the Egyptians’? For it would have been better for us to serve the Egyptians than to die in the wilderness.”

(Ex. 14.11-12)

This sort of complaint will be made often throughout Exodus, but it has the same effect as other repeated motifs, such as the promise of offspring and Moses’ bargaining with God. It helps to establish the mood of the people and the frustration of living with a God that does not act exactly the way you want him to act. This is, of course, how God seems to act: not caring much for you. But God does care, the Bible tells us. It’s just that sometimes it takes a while. In fact, God’s response in Exodus is very quick. The Israelites seem to think that God is not watching out for him, and whenever this is expressed, it is quickly corrected. God, it seems, is now watching his people carefully.

In any case, Moses responds to the people the Lord will deliver them; they need only to stand firm and not be afraid: “The Lord will fight for you, and you have only to keep still” (Ex. 14.14).

Though it was the people that cried out to God, the Lord responds to Moses directly: “Why do you cry out to me? Tell the Israelites to go forward” (Ex. 13.15). The Lord then tells Moses to lift his staff and stretch out his hand over the sea; the same action that was used to invoke many of the plagues. In this way the sea will divide so that the Israelites may gross on dry ground. God will then harden the Egyptians’ hearts so that they will follow and God can make his coup de grace and win glory for himself. The Egyptians will then know of God’s greatness.

The Israelites have prepared for battle, and are then fittingly portrayed as an “army.” This characterization helps to invoke the motif of the divine warrior. God, as divine warrior, will fight for Israel:

The angel of God who was going before the Israelite army moved and went behind them; and the pillar of cloud moved from in front of them and took its place behind them. It came between the army of Egypt and the army of Israel. And so the cloud was there with the darkness, and it lit up the night; one did not come near the other all night.

(Exodus 14.19)

Exodus 13.21 states that the Lord leads the Israelites in a pillar of cloud and fire. Here, however, it is the angel of God in the pillar. In fact, the first sentence can be read as verse, with parallelism that typified Hebrew poetry. The angel of God and the pillar are the same entity, moving together. The second phrase parallels the first and is synonymous with it.

Moses stretches out his hand and the Lord drives the Red Sea back with an east wind all night. The Israelites cross on dry ground, with walls of water on either side. The Egyptians pursue them, but the Lord sees and throws the army into a panic. Their chariot wheels clog as they try to flee.

The Pursuers Drowned: Exodus 14.26-31

The Lord tells Moses to stretch his arm over the sea again so that the waters may come back in, right on the Egyptians. At dawn the waters collapse back in and the Lord flings the Egyptians into the sea. Not one Egyptian remains.

The chapter ends:

Thus the Lord saved Israel that day from the Egyptians; and Israel saw the Egyptians dead on the seashore. Israel saw the great work that the Lord did against the Egyptians. So the people feared the Lord and believed in the Lord and in his servant Moses.

(Ex. 14.30-31)

Tomorrow: Poetry.

Exodus 12.33-13.16

The Exodus: From Rameses to Succoth / Directions for the Passover / The Festival of Unleavened Bread / The Consecration of the Firstborn

The Exodus: From Rameses to Succoth: Exodus 12.33-42

Perhaps fearing there are more plagues to come, the Egyptians hurry the Israelites out of Egypt. The people do not have time to bake bread – they take the kneading bowls and unleavened dough and leave. Well, they do have time to take the jewelry and clothing the Lord promised, thereby plundering the Egyptians. By the way, the unleavened bread part is in fulfillment of God’s word.

In total, 600,000 men travel from Rameses to Succoth. The HarperCollins editorial note reads: “Counting women, children, and the elderly, the total would well exceed 2 million; a large army comprised perhaps 20,000 soldiers” (104). The crowd had not prepared provisions, their egress was so fast. So they bake the dough to make unleavened bread.

The Israelites had been living in Egypt for 430 years to the day. For generations to come a vigil for the Lord is to be kept by the Israelites on this day.

Directions for the Passover: Exodus 12.43-13.2

More Passover instructions as given by God to Moses and Aaron! (See yesterday’s post for the previous instructions)

• Those who cannot eat it
• Foreigners. (Ex. 12.43)
• “Bound or hired” servants. (see above; Ex. 12.45)
• Uncircumcised people. (see above; Ex. 12.48)
• Those who can eat it.
• A slave who has been purchased and circumcised. (Ex. 12.44)
• The whole congregation of Israel must eat it. (Ex. 12.47)
• An alien who wishes to celebrate it and has had all his males circumcised. Bonus! He will be regarded as a native of the land. (Ex. 12.48)
• How to eat it.
• In the house. Don’t take any meat outside. (Ex. 12.46)
• Do not break the bones of the animal. (Ex. 12.46)

There is then an inversion: The Lord tells Moses to consecrate all the firstborns to God: “Whatever is the first to open the womb among the Israelites, of human beings and animals, is mine” (Ex. 13.2). This inverts the tenth plague, in which the Lord killed all the firstborns. Here Moses is to dedicate all the firstborns to God; they are made sacred in God’s name. Rather than having their life taken, firstborns by this command receive a protection of sorts.

The Festival of Unleavened Bread: Exodus 13.3-10

Moses gives instructions regarding the festival of unleavened bread, but with a few key differences.

The Israelites escape bondage in Abib, the first month of the year. As a yearly memorial ritual, no leavened bread should be eaten for a week during this month, beginning when the Lord (not Moses…) brings the Israelites into the land of all those foreigners that flows with milk and honey. On the seventh day there is to be a festival to the Lord. No one can leavened bread or even have leaven in their possession. On the seventh day parents should tell their child:

It is because of what the Lord did for me when I came out of Egypt.

(Ex. 13.8).

Furthermore,

It shall serve for you as a sign on your hand and as a reminder on your forehead, so that the teaching of the Lord may be on your lips; for with a strong hand the Lord brought you out of Egypt.

(Ex. 13.9)

In later times this comes to be interpreted as a command to wear Tefillin, or phylacteries. These are small boxes connected by a strap that sit upon the forehead and arms. Each box contains scrolls of parchment with prayer written on them.

Exodus 12.26-27 contains a parallel response to a child that is explained in Exodus 13.8. The earlier on occurs during Passover:

And when your children ask you, “What do you mean by this observance?” you shall say, “It is the Passover sacrifice to the Lord, for he passed over the houses of the Israelites in Egypt, when he struck down the Egyptians but spared our houses.”

(Ex. 12.26-27)

This, of course, is how the story is passed down through the generations, an important theme from the account of the plagues.

The Consecration of the Firstborn: Exodus 13.11-16

Here follows a parallel command for consecration of the firstborn, one that elaborates on the previous command above.

Moses tells the people of the Lord’s command, which will apply as soon as the Israelites enter the land of the Canaanites. All the firstborn male livestock belong to (read: sacrificed to) the Lord. However, donkeys should be redeemed with sheep (i.e. sacrificing a lamb for the donkey [because donkeys are unclean and therefore unfit for sacrifice]). Otherwise the donkey’s neck should be broken. The firstborn males should all be redeemed (i.e. a lamb for the kid [heh, get it, “kid.” Okay, “child” is a better term there]). Then appears the third question from a child:

When in the future your child asks you, “What does this mean?” you shall answer, “By strength of hand the Lord brought us out of Egypt, from the house of slavery. When Pharaoh stubbornly refused to let us go, the Lord killed all the firstborn in the land of Egypt, from human firstborn to the firstborn of animals. Therefore I sacrifice to the Lord every male that first opens the womb, but every firstborn of my sons I redeem.” It shall serve as a sign on your hand and as an emblem on your forehead that by strength of hand the Lord brought us out of Egypt.

(Exodus 13.14-16)

The inverse ceremony is completed with the redemption of the firstborns. Note as well the reference to the Lord’s hand bringing Israel out of Egypt and the repetition of the sign on the hand and forehead. There is an awful lot of repetition going on here…

Tomorrow: Something completely different.

Exodus 11.1-12.32

Warning of the Final Plague /  The First Passover Instituted / The Tenth Plague           

Warning of the Final Plague: Exodus 11.1-9

Text One

The Lord comes to Moses and tells him that the Lord will bring one more plague upon Pharaoh and Egypt. After this, Pharaoh will actually drive the Israelites out. The Israelites (male and female) are to ask their neighbors for silver and gold in fulfillment of the promise in Exodus 3.21-22: “…when you go, you will not go empty handed; each woman shall ask her neighbor and any woman living in a neighbor’s house for jewelry of silver of gold, and clothing, and you shall put them on your sons and daughters; and so you shall plunder the Egyptians.” (Because we’ve already been told this, God does not need to be explicit the second time. However there is the inconsistency of men and women versus women only.)

The Lord ensures the Israelites’ favor among the Egyptians, and Moses becomes “a man of great importance in the land of Egypt, in the sight of Pharaoh’s officials and in the sight of the people” (Ex.11.3). Moses is the second man to achieve this explicit prominence in Egypt; the first was Joseph. It is only Pharaoh that does not appreciate Moses. But because God makes a distinction between Israel and Egypt rather than those-who-like-Moses and those-who-don’t, the Egyptians will all suffer the last plague. That is not to say that the impending destruction is Pharaoh’s fault. Indeed, it is God who is demonstrating God’s greatness.

In every other plague-story in which Moses speaks, he explicitly speaks to Pharaoh. Here this is not so, perhaps out of the author’s deference to Moses’ exclamation in Exodus 10.29: “Just as you say! I will never see your face again.” In any case, Moses delivers an address to an unknown audience regarding the next plague: death to every firstborn in Egypt, even Pharaoh’s and the firstborn of livestock (which were apparently resurrected after the fifth and seventh plagues). A great cry will go up through the land, “such as has never been or will ever be again” (Ex. 11.6). But not even a dg will growl at the Israelites and their animals because of the distinction the Lord makes. All the officials of Pharaoh will bow before Moses, begging him to leave. Then Moses promises he will. And then Moses’ audience is revealed in Exodus 11.8: “And in hot anger he left Pharaoh.” He has been speaking to Pharaoh this whole time! This is a bit of a surprise ending, for the narrator until now has always specified Moses’ audience at the beginning of his address.

Then appears an anachronistic fragment:

The Lord said to Moses, “Pharaoh will not listen to you, in order that my wonders may be multiplied in the land of Egypt.”

[Text Two] Moses and Aaron performed all these wonders before Pharaoh; but the Lord hardened Pharaoh’s heart, and he did not let the people of Israel go out of his land.

Pharaoh has already not listened to Pharaoh, so why does God tell him this now? Likewise, what are these “wonders” that Moses and Aaron performed before Pharaoh? These are not mentioned. Sure, there are plagues, but a wonder is something more akin to Aaron’s rod becoming a snake (see Ex. 7.8: “Perform a wonder”). I suspect these are fragments from a different tradition that have been placed here to close the narrative. In fact, the narrative unit of plagues closes to make way for a long explanation of Passover. So perhaps the reference to wonders and the hardening of Pharaoh’s heart serves as the closing of an “envelope” that opens with Aaron’s wonder with the rod and the hardening of Pharaoh’s heart that precedes the first nine plagues and description of the tenth.

The First Passover Instituted: Exodus 12.1-28

Text Two

The Lord establishes to Moses and Aaron that henceforth this month shall be the first month of the year. The Lord then gives instructions on how to hold a proper Passover. I have rearranged the instructions below (Exodus 12.3-13) so that you too can carry out your own Passover as it is instructed!

• On the tenth of the month each family should get a lamb. (Ex. 12.3)
• If your household is too small for a whole lamb, join your neighbors. (Ex. 12.4)
• The lamb
• May be a sheep or goat. (Ex. 12.5)
• Must be without blemish. (Ex. 12.5)
• Must be a year-old male. (Ex. 12.5)
• The lamb shall be divided in proportion to the number of people attending. (Ex. 12.4)
• On the fourteenth of the month, each family of Israel should slaughter its lamb at twilight. (Ex. 12.6)
• Take some of the blood of the slaughtered lamb and put it on the doorposts and lintel of the houses the lamb is being eaten in. (Ex. 12.7)
• During the night the Lord will pass through Egypt and kill all the firstborns, humans and animals. (Ex. 12.12)
• The blood will be a sign for God. God will pass over the houses with blood (Ex. 12.13).
• Prepare the lamb
• Roast it over a fire (head, legs, and organs intact). (Ex. 12.8-9)
• Do NOT eat it raw or boiled. (Ex. 12.9)
• Eating the lamb
• Eat the lamb the same night it is slaughtered. (Ex. 12.8)
• Serve with unleavened bread and roasted herbs. (Ex. 12.8)
• Gird your loins and wear your sandals. Have your staff in your hand during the meal. (Ex. 12.11) In other words…
• Eat hurriedly. (Ex. 12.11)
• Do not let any of the lamb remain until morning. Burn anything that remains in the morning. (Ex. 12.10)

Text ?

What follows these instructions is what seems to be a separate text, this one concerning the festival of unleavened bread. The first indication? It opens, “This day shall be a day of remembrance for you” (Ex. 12.14). Later God commands, “You shall observe the festival of unleavened bread, for on this very day I brought your companies out of the land of Egypt” (Ex. 12.17). This very day has not happened yet! It will happen very soon, but the modifier very indicates that God is speaking to Moses on the day that the Israelites escape Egypt.

Here are the instructions for carrying out your own festival of unleavened bread, an annual festival of the Lord to commemorate the Lord bringing Israel out of Egypt:

• Begin the festival on the fourteenth day of the month (Passover) and continue for seven days. (Ex. 12.18)
• Eat only unleavened bread for seven days. Anyone who eats leavened bread during this time will be cut off from Israel. (Ex. 12.15, 19, 20)
• Day One
• Remove all leaven from your house. (Ex. 12.15, 19)
• Hold a solemn assembly. (Ex. 12.16)
• Don’t do any work besides preparing meals. (Ex. 12.16)
• Day seven
• Hold a solemn assembly. (Ex. 12.16)
• Don’t do any work besides preparing meals. (Ex. 12.16)
• Celebrate the festival annually. (Ex. 12.14)

Text ??

Here a new text begins, with Moses giving instructions to the elders of Israel regarding the first Passover:

• Select a lamb for your family. (Ex. 12.21)
• Slaughter said lamb. (Ex. 12.21)
• Using a bunch of hyssop as your brush, touch the lintel and two doorposts of your house with the blood of the slaughtered lamb. (Ex. 12.22) This will be a sign to the Lord to pass over the house.
• Do this yearly, and continue the practice in the land the Lord will give to Israel. (Ex. 12.24)
• When children ask, “What do you mean by this observance?” reply, “It is the Passover sacrifice to the Lord, for he passed over the houses of the Israelites in Egypt, when he struck down the Egyptians but spared our houses.” (Ex. 12.26-27)

The Israelites do just as the Lord commands Moses and Aaron.

Note that the second set of instructions for Passover, the instructions that Moses gives, differ slightly from the first set of instructions, the instructions that God gives.

The Tenth Plague: Exodus 12.29-32

The Lord strikes down all the firstborns at midnight: even of the animals and of Pharaoh. Pharaoh awakes during the night, and he and his officials and all of Egypt cry out; “there was not a house without someone dead” (Ex. 12.30).

Pharaoh summons Moses and Aaron during the night and commands them to leave with all of Israel and their flocks and herds. He pleads, “And bring a blessing on me too!” (Ex. 12.32).

Plague Wrap-Up

Why do I believe that this story is a composite text? There are a number of reasons. At times Moses and Aaron act together. Other times Moses acts alone. In Exodus 9.8 God speaks to Moses and Aaron, regarding the plan for the sixth plague. For the rest of the plagues God speaks to Moses only. Likewise, God speaks to the brothers in Exodus 12.1 and 12.28.

Furthermore, the plagues are brought about by three different entities.

For the first plague it is not specified who brings about the plague. It is most likely Aaron, as he is with Aaron, who afterwards delivers plagues 2 and 3. The Lord delivers plagues 4, 5, and 10, using Moses as an intermediary to warn Pharaoh of the impending plague. Moses delivers plagues 6, 7, 8, and 9. If there was one consistent text, it might have been more consistent, more formulaic in its plague-giving.

Speaking of which, there are formulas for the plagues. Plagues 1 through 10 open with: “Then the Lord said to Moses…” The only exception to this rule, as noted above, is plague 6, when God speaks to Moses and Aaron.

Seven of the plagues come with warnings to Pharaoh: 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, and 10. Of these, only 10 does not contain the command, “let my people go.” There are no warnings to be delivered to Pharaoh for plagues 3, 6, and 9.

All of these indicate to me that there are separate interwoven texts that create the overarching story of the plagues.

Additionally, Moses is summoned before Pharaoh following plagues 4, 7, 8, 9, and 10. [This structure helps to demonstrate the intensification of God’s plagues, and perhaps the sentiment of Pharaoh’s officials to let the Israelites go. As the plagues get worse, Pharaoh responds more frequently by allowing the Israelites to leave.

Exodus 7.8-10.29

Aaron’s Miracle / Plague I / Plague II / Plague III / Plague IV / Plague V / Plague VI / Plague VII / Plague VIII / Plague IX

Plague Day! Here are the first nine plagues. A plague wrap-up will follow in tomorrow’s post. Warning: this is a long one.

Keep your eye on who is acting in these: Moses alone (Text One) or in combination with his brother Aaron (Text Two).

Aaron’s Miracle: Exodus 7.8-13

The Lord comes to Moses and Aaron and tells them to perform the snake trick (which God previously taught Moses on Mount Horeb in Exodus 4) before Pharaoh. The pair go to Pharaoh and Aaron throws down his staff, which becomes a snake. The Pharaoh summons his sorcerers and magicians to perform the same trick, but their snakes are swallowed up by Aaron’s.

Still, Pharaoh’s heart was hardened, as the Lord said it would be.

What this story tells us might not be so much that God’s magic is real, but rather that it is more powerful than the magicians’. Joseph displays God’s power in interpreting dreams that the Egyptian magicians could not. Likewise, Aaron and Moses demonstrate God’s power with a staff/snake that utterly destroys the magicians’ staff/snakes. The same feats are performed in each, but the Hebrew feat is greater than the Egyptian feat.

Don’t agree with me? By all means, let me know! Check out the comment section below!

The First Plague – Water into Blood: Exodus 7.14-25

There are two interwoven texts for the rest of this analysis.

Text One

Moses is alone for this one. The Lord tells Moses that Pharaoh’s heart is hardened. Therefore, Moses should meet Pharaoh by the river in the morning and remind him of God’s command to “Let my people go, so that they may worship me in the wilderness” (Ex. 7.16). Moses should warn Pharaoh that he will strike the Nile so that it turns to blood, resulting in dead fish, a stinking river, and non-potable water.

Text Two

Then is interwoven the text of a different tradition. This one involves Moses and Aaron. In this version Moses is to tell Aaron to take his staff and stretch his hand over all the water of Egypt, so that all rivers, canals, pools, and ponds become blood. Even the water in vessels of wood and stone will contain blood.

God teaches Moses three tricks in Exodus 4: staff into snake, leprous hand, and water into blood. But the last of these was just some of the water of the Nile, not the entire Nile! Also, this is a different way of doing it. Now the water into blood trick is done with the staff. (Also of note, Moses never uses the second trick.)

When it comes to execution, the two narratives are interwoven. Here I unweave them.[Italics indicate phrases that indicate the text]:

[Text Two] “Moses and Aaron did just as the Lord commanded.”

[Text One] “In the sight of Pharaoh and of his officials he lifted up the staff and struck the water in the river, and all the water in the river was turned into blood, and the fish in the river died. The river stank so that the Egyptians could not drink its water, and there was blood throughout the whole land of Egypt.”

[Text Two] “But the magicians of Egypt did the same by their secret arts; so Pharaoh’s heart remained hardened, and he would not listen to them, as the Lord had said. Pharaoh turned and went into his house, and he did not take even this to heart.”

[Text One? (This one is iffy)] “And all the Egyptians had to dig along the Nile for water to drink, for they could not drink the water of the river.”

Note on magic: the magicians could do the same thing!

Also note that it is the Egyptians who have to dig for water. It is not indicated whether this plague affects the Israelites.

Seven days (a standard designation that does not necessarily mean a week but rather some short period of days) pass so that the river can clear up in preparation for the next plague.

The Second Plague – Frogs: Exodus 8.1-15

Two texts again.

Text One

The Lord tells Moses to got to Pharaoh and tell him the Lord says “Let my people go, so that they may worship me” (Ex. 8.1). God threatens frogs, and their presence will be personal: Though frogs will plague the entire nation, the frogs will come from the river into Pharaoh’s palace, into his bedchamber, into his bed, into the houses of Pharaoh’s officials and the Egyptians.

Text Two

The Lord tells Moses to tell Aaron to stretch out his hand and staff over the rivers, canals and pools. Wait, have we seen this before? Yes, we have. See the first example of this story type in the first plague.

The magicians are able to replicate the plague. 

The frogs affect Egyptians; it is not indicated that the Israelites are affected.

Pharaoh Responds [Text Two]

Pharaoh entreats Moses and Aaron to pray to the Lord to take away the frogs. If the frogs are taken away, Pharaoh will let the Israelites go. Moses tells Pharaoh to tell him when to pray, and it will be done. Pharaoh responds, “Tomorrow,” to which Moses says, “As you say! So that you may know that there is no one like the Lord our God, the frogs shall leave you and your houses and your officials and you people; they shall be left only in the Nile” (Ex. 8.10-11). (From this text, it seems that only the Egyptians are affected by the plague.)

Moses prays to God, the Lord answers Moses’ prayer, and the frogs all die. The frogs are gathered in heaps, and again the land stinks. But again, Pharaoh hardens his heart.

The Third Plague – Gnats: Exodus 8.16-19

Text Two

The Lord tells Moses to tell Aaron, “Stretch out your staff and strike the dust of the earth, so that it may become gnats throughout the whole land of Egypt” (Ex. 8.16). Aaron does so “and the gnats came on humans and animals alike; all the dust of the earth turned into gnats throughout the whole land of Egypt.” (Ex. 8.17).

This time, the plague seems to affect everyone in Egypt, which presumably includes the Hebrews.

The magicians are unable to reproduce this plague. They tell Pharaoh, “This is the finger of God!” (Ex. 8.19). And, indeed, it is one of ten plagues of God’s “mighty hand” that will bring the Israelites out of Egypt.

But Pharaoh’s heart is hardened; he does not listen to his magicians.

The Fourth Plague – Flies: Exodus 8.20-32

Text One

The Lord tells Moses to rise early and find Pharaoh by the water. Moses is to tell Pharaoh to let the Israelites go, so that they can worship God. If this is not done, God will send swarms of flies, a plague just as personal as the frogs, and just like the frogs, affecting only Egyptians: “But on that day I will set apart the land of Goshen, where my people live, so that no swarms of flies shall be there, that you may know that I the Lord am in this land. Thus I will make a distinction between my people and your people” (Ex. 8.22-23). This will happen the next day. 

The distinction that was implicit before is made explicit here. Now we know that the Israelites are protected from the plagues.

The Lord executes his promise, and flies descend upon Egypt.

Text Two

Pharaoh summons Moses and Aaron and tells them to make sacrifices to God. Moses responds that this would be improper: sacrifices to the Lord are offensive to the Egyptians – the Israelites will be stoned if they make sacrifices. They must go three days into the wilderness.

Pharaoh tells Moses they may go, provided they do not journey too far. Moses answers that he will pray to the Lord so that the flies will depart the next day. But Pharaoh should stay true to his word.

Surprise! Moses and the Lord follow through, but Pharaoh’s heart is hardened.  

The Fifth Plague – Livestock Diseased: Exodus 9.1-7

Text One

The Lord tells Moses to go to Pharaoh with the message that Pharaoh should let God’s people go. If not, then “the hand of the Lord will strike with a deadly pestilence your livestock in the field: the horses, the donkeys, the camels, the herds, and the flocks” (Ex. 9.3). But the Lord will make a distinction between the livestock of Egypt and that of Israel. The Lord sets the next day for the plague.

All the livestock of the Egyptians dies, quite a number! But this is not completely correct. The next plagues will contradict this detail.

Pharaoh inquires himself and discovers that the livestock of the Israelites survived. But with his hardened heart, Pharaoh does not let the Israelites go.

The Sixth Plague – Boils: Exodus 9.8-12

Text Two

The Lord tells Moses and Aaron that Moses should take handfuls of soot and throw them into the air before Pharaoh. The soot will spread over Egypt, causing boils on humans and animals.

The magicians cannot respond to this plague because even they are affected by the boils! And still the Lord hardens Pharaoh’s heart.

The Seventh Plague – Thunder and Hail: Exodus 9.13-26

Text One

The Lord tells Moses to present himself to Pharaoh with the message to let God’s people go:

For this time I will send all my plagues upon you yourself, and upon your officials, and upon your people, so that you may know that there is no one like me in all the earth. For by now I cold have stretched out my hand and struck you and your people with pestilence, and you would have been cut off from the earth. But this is why I have let you live: to show you my power, and to make my name resound through all the earth.

 (Ex. 9.14-16)

That there is no one like me is completely true; God has shown himself better than Pharaoh’s magicians (and by extension his gods). But God does not send all his plagues this time. This is just a plague like any of the others.

God here reveals exactly why he has not simply smote Pharaoh and his people: he wishes to reveal his power. And he is not only revealing his power to Pharaoh, but to the world. And he is not only revealing his power to the world, but to all future generations. And indeed, this is the case. God’s plagues, which take up so much space, are a testament to God’s destructive power. In fact, compare this to the stories of creation. Destruction is given a lot more space. You know what receives even more space? Legal matters. Oy. This too shall pass arrive. 

Compare the sentiment to Shakespeare’s Sonnet 18. The poem expresses the same sentiment; it is an ancient idea, after all. It is not the beauty or destruction that survives time, but the tale of it. Perhaps the biblical writers were conscious even of this.

Back to the plague. God promises through Moses “the heaviest hail to fall that has ever fallen in Egypt from the day it was founded until now” (Ex. 9.18). 

God offers reprieve for those who believe God’s word. The message comes with instructions to bring livestock and slaves into a sheltered place. Pharaoh is losing support; some of his officials who fear the word of the Lord secure their possessions. (Hey, wait a minute. Weren’t the livestock all destroyed in the fifth plague? Perhaps that was a bit of an exaggeration.)

God then command Moses to stretch out his hand to heaven. Moses stretches out his staff, and the Lord sends thunder and hail and fire down on Egypt. Notice that Moses is told to stretch out his hand, and the hand becomes synonymous with the staff in the next verse. Also, this command up until this point has been fulfilled by Aaron, not Moses. Moses takes action in this text.

The hail kills everything in the open field, and destroys all the plants in the field. But there is no hail in Goshen.

Text Two

Pharaoh summons Moses and Aaron and declares his guilt, saying he has sinned and that the Israelites are in the right. Pharaoh then promises to release the Israelites. Moses promises to stop the hail, “so that you may know that the earth is the Lord’s” (Ex. 9.29). But Moses knows that Pharaoh and his officials do not yet fear God.

An editorial note states that the flax and barley were ruined, but the wheat and spelt were not, for they grow later. That means no beer for a year!

Moses stops the rain and thunder and hail, but when Pharaoh sees this, “he sinned once more and hardened his heart, he and his officials” (Ex. 9.34).

The Eighth Plague – Locusts: Exodus 10.1-20

Text One

Exodus 10, which begins the tale of the eighth plague, opens:

Then the Lord said to Moses, ‘Go to Pharaoh; for I have hardened his heart and the heart of his officials, in order that I may show these signs of mine among them, and that you may tell your children and grandchildren how I have made fools of the Egyptians and what signs I have done among them—so that you may know that I am the Lord.’

(Exodus 10.1-2)

Again there is the sentiment that God is acting in such an elaborate manner so that the grand story will be told to future generations. The story of the plagues will be passed on – and it is! Of course, as noted before, it helps to have someone around to write down the story so it lasts even longer:

So long as men can breathe, or eyes can see, 

So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.

(Shakespeare’s Sonnet 18; see above)

Text Two

Moses and Aaron go to Pharaoh with a message from God: How long will Pharaoh refuse to humble himself? Let God’s people go! If Pharaoh does not, God will bring locusts into the country that will blanket the land. They will devour everything left in the fields (wheat and felt; see above) and every tree. They will fill the houses of every Egyptian – something that “neither your parents nor your grandparents have seen, from the day they came on earth to this day” (Ex. 10.6). This sentiment is similar to that of the seventh plague. The seventh plague brought the heaviest hail; the eight brings the greatest infestation of gnats.

Pharaoh’s officials tell him that Moses is quite a pain – why not let him into the wilderness? After all, Egypt is already ruined. It is enough to have Pharaoh bring Moses and Aaron back in and tell them they may go into the wilderness. But Pharaoh will not allow all the Israelites to leave along with their livestock: 

The Lord indeed will be with you, if ever I let your little ones go with you! Plainly you have some evil purpose in mind. No, never! Your men may go and worship the Lord, for that is what you are asking.

(Ex. 10.10-11)

Well, this is simply unacceptable.

Text One

Again it is Moses that is commanded to stretch out his hand, which translates to his staff. The Lord whips up an east wind for a day and a night, which brings locusts the next day. The land is black with locusts. The trees, the crops are all ruined.

Text Two

Pharaoh once again summons Moses and Aaron, saying he has sinned against them and the Lord. He asks for forgiveness (“just this once” [Ex. 10.17]) and removal of the locust. The Lord changes the east wind into a west wind, and the locusts are driven into the Red Sea. But once again the Lord hardens Pharaoh’s heart.

The Ninth Plague – Darkness: Exodus 10.21-29

Text One

The Lord commands Moses to stretch out his hand so that there is darkness. Moses stretches his hand out, not his staff, and a “dense” darkness descends for three days. It is so bad that the Egyptians do not move for three days. The Israelites, on the other hand, have plenty of light.

Pharaoh summons Moses and tells him to go worship the Lord. Even the children may go now, but the livestock must be left behind (one senses as collateral). Moses argues the animals are necessary for sacrifices: 

‘You must also let us have sacrifices and burnt-offerings to sacrifice to the Lord our God. Our livestock also must go with us; not a hoof shall be left behind, for we must choose some of them for the worship of the Lord our God, and we will not know what to use to worship the Lord until we arrive there.’

(Ex. 10.25-26)

The Lord hardens Pharaoh’s heart, and Pharaoh cries, “Get away from me! Take care that you do not see my face again, for on the day you see my face you shall die” (Ex. 10.28). Moses replies, “Just as you say! I will never see your face again” (Ex. 10.29).

Actually, Moses will.

Does anyone share my appreciation of the dark humor in that last exchange? In a tale in which Egypt is robbed of its sight, Pharaoh and Moses argue over seeing each other. I hope that is intentional on the author’s part.

Interesting. For this plague there is no introduction about Pharaoh’s heart being hardened or Moses going to Pharaoh. Perhaps God has finally had enough?