Jeremiah 19-52: A history of prophecy

The prophets who preceded you and me from ancient times prophesied war, famine, and pestilence against many countries and great kingdoms. As for the prophet who prophesies peace, when the word of that prophet comes true, then it will be known that the Lord has truly sent the prophet.
(Jeremiah 28.8-9)

So Jeremiah told Hananiah in his prophecies of the Lord's wrath against his unfaithful people. The postulate is remarkably accurate. Prophecies of peace are  uncommon and are often unfulfilled (see further, the book of Revelation). It is easier for a prophet to prophesy war, famine, and pestilence because this is the most common denominator of human existence. A prophet may easily look at political situations and make an informed oracle about the future. But what makes a prophecy truly compelling is the divine input. God is all-powerful and yet gives his people the freedom to break their covenant with him. If all obey God, the prophets contend, there will be no war, famine or pestilence. If the Israelites disobey God, they will be destroyed by their enemies, who are of course controlled by an all-powerful and wrathful God. Such is life.

In the first two posts on Jeremiah, we explored Jeremiah's personal persecution vis-a-vis Israel's, and examined some of the prophet's laments. Today's post takes a look at Jeremiah in a historical context. It is clear that his prophetic messages changed over time to address evolving political realities. Read one way, Jeremiah seems to even execute an about-face on earlier prophecies. In any case, Jeremiah worked in a very difficult time, and seemed to adapt his message to reject the status quo while still maintaining a certain amount of care for his fellow Israelites.

Jeremiah prophesied in a tumultuous time in Jewish history. His career as a prophet began in 627, the "thirteenth year of King Josiah of Judah's reign. This is the same year that Judah joined the other vassal nations of Assyria in revolting against the empire (a fact not mentioned in Kings). Josiah, who had ostensibly discovered the book of the Law of Moses (probably Deuteronomy), wished to reestablish the Davidic monarchy. Jeremiah firmly opposed this through his entire life, in favor of the older, God-centric expression of faith.

The Assyrians until this point had an adversarial relationship with the Jews. In 724 Hoshea, the last king of Israel, was carried away to Assyria for refusing to pay tribute as a vassal of the Assyrian king Shalmaneser and instead seeking the protection of Egypt. That same year the Assyrians began a three-year siege of Samaria, capturing the city and deporting its residents in 722 (2 Kings 17.1-6). By divine intervention (and creating a remarkable historical reality if this is in fact true), Judah avoided paying tribute to Assyria altogether, and continues to exist as a nation until 597.

Unfortunately for Judah, the Assyrian empire collapsed in 605, and Babylon showed interest in taking what Assyria could not. Though King Jehoiakim initially supported the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar beginning in 604, his tribute switched around 601 as Babylon's enemy Egypt seemed to gain power. Babylon grew in strength and conquered Jerusalem in 597. Wealthy and influential residents of the city were deported to foreign lands. The city was completely destroyed ten years later, and a second deportation exiled many of the remaining residents.

This is the political situation that Jeremiah found himself working in, adapting his message as times changed. Initially his oracles are against personal enemies and the corruption of Judah. The second theme is expanded upon over time so that the Babylonian conquest of Judah becomes seen as God's divine punishment on a wicked people. In fact, Jeremiah  initially urges his audience to acquiesce to Babylonian rule. "It will all get better if we wait it out," the prophet seems to say. Babylon is simply acting as an agent of God, who wishes to punish his people for failing to fulfill their terms of the covenant with him. Later in his career, however, Jeremiah begins to prophesy against Babylon, framing the empire as malignant oppressors who are now the enemies of God, not simply a tool that God used to discipline his people. In a great reversal of fortune, the conquerors will be conquered. These oracles are messages of hope, for the Lord's wrath will be guided away from God's people, back to the pagan nations.

Let's take a look at Jeremiah's evolving prophecy.

Thus says the Lord, the God of Israel: I am going to turn back the weapons of war that are in your hands and with which you are fighting against the king of Babylon and against the Chaldeans who are besieging you outside the walls; and I will bring them together into the center of this city. I myself will fight against you with outstretched hand and mighty arm, in anger, in fury, and in great wrath. And I will strike down the inhabitants of this city, both human beings and animals; they shall die of a great pestilence. Afterward, says the Lord, I will give King Zedekiah of Judah, and his servants, and the people in this city—those who survive the pestilence, sword, and famine—into the hands of King Nebuchadrezzar of Babylon, into the hands of their enemies, into the hands of those who seek their lives. He shall strike them down with the edge of the sword; he shall not pity them, or spare them, or have compassion.
(Jeremiah 21.3-7)

 This prophecy, delivered by Jeremiah to King Zedekiah of Judah, accurately predicts the destruction of Judah by the Babylonians. He attributes the disaster not to King Nebuchadrezzar, but rather the Lord, who is seeking vengeance on his unfaithful people by destroying them with pestilence, sword, and famine. Always it is the Lord's hand that guides Babylon in defeating his people. And because it is the Lord acting against the Judahites, it is okay, even honorable to surrender. The only real shame that Jerusalem will face is their humiliation before God. The city is doomed, but the people may keep their lives if they surrender:

And to this people you shall say: Thus says the Lord: See, I am setting before you the way of life and the way of death. Those who stay in this city shall die by the sword, by famine, and by pestilence; but those who go out and surrender to the Chaldeans who are besieging you shall live and shall have their lives as a prize of war. For I have set my face against this city for evil and not for good, says the Lord: it shall be given into the hands of the king of Babylon, and he shall burn it with fire.
(Jeremiah 21.8-10)

The oppression will not last forever, and Jeremiah indicates this in a prophecy from the Lord predicting the forthcoming righteous king of Israel:

The days are surely coming, says the Lord, when I will raise up for David a righteous Branch, and he shall reign as king and deal wisely, and shall execute justice and righteousness in the land. In his days Judah will be saved and Israel will live in safety. And this is the name by which he will be called: “The Lord is our righteousness.” Therefore, the days are surely coming, says the Lord, when it shall no longer be said, “As the Lord lives who brought the people of Israel up out of the land of Egypt,” but “As the Lord lives who brought out and led the offspring of the house of Israel out of the land of the north and out of all the lands where he had driven them.” Then they shall live in their own land.
(Jeremiah 23.5-8)

The new united monarchy (though monarchy may be the wrong word because the oracle champions worship of God over an earthly leader) will mark a great new era in the history of Israel, the second return to the homeland. Interesting - no matter where the Israelites end up, they always return to the same place. Since the days of Abraham this family has been drawn to this area, the land that God promised them.


By chapter 30 we discover that not only will the house of Jacob return to its homeland, but the punishment it suffered at the hands of its oppressors will be redirected at the oppressors.

But as for you, have no fear, my servant Jacob, says the Lord, and do not be dismayed, O Israel; for I am going to save you from far away, and your offspring from the land of their captivity. Jacob shall return and have quiet and ease, and no one shall make him afraid. For I am with you, says the Lord, to save you; I will make an end of all the nations among which I scattered you, but of you I will not make an end. I will chastise you in just measure, and I will by no means leave you unpunished.
(Jeremiah 30.10-11)

For thus says the Lord: Just as I have brought all this great disaster upon this people, so I will bring upon them all the good fortune that I now promise them.
(Jeremiah 32.42)

That disaster will be redirected against a slew of enemies, peoples in whose lands the exiled Israelites have resided: Egypt, the Philistines, Moab, the Amonites, Edom, Damascus, Kedar, Hazor, Elam, and most especially Babylon. It is Babylon, of course, that gets the greatest and longest prophecies against it. Initially drones acting out the will of the Lord, they are viewed at the end of Jeremiah's career as harsh oppressors who must be punished for their vile deeds. And indeed they will be punished. By 538 King Cyrus of Persia will defeat the Babylonians and issue a decree allowing Israelites to return to their homeland and worship their God. Jeremiah's prophecy of restoration is partially fulfilled, but after the second exile, Israel will never be the same.

Isaiah 40-55: Cyrus the Conquerer

 Second Isaiah

Cyrus the Conquerer
The complex tensions in First Isaiah carry over into Second Isaiah, which sees a great new conquerer coming to free Israel from its captivity in Babylon. A new tension is added: this conquerer is Cyrus the Great, a Persian king. Israel's own monarchy has failed; considering that 1 Samuel portrays the monarchy as a rejection of the Lord, one might say it was doomed from the start. In fact, Babylonian captivity springs directly from the evil kings of the divided monarchy. But since the divine covenant still exists between Israel and God, God is able to redeem his people by exerting his will through Cyrus. This is not without precedent. The Lord formerly aided his people directly through the judges:

Whenever the Lord raised up judges for them, the Lord was with the judge, and he delivered them from the hand of their enemies all the days of the judge; for the Lord would be moved to pity by their groaning because of those who persecuted and oppressed them.
(Judges 2.18)

The innovation is that Cyrus is not an Israelite, as the Israelites are unable to fight against the strong oppression they face. The historical fact of Cyrus' conquering Babylon is given the theological gloss of God's divine will. It is easy to make this connection when we consider that Cyrus not only conquered Babylon, but also brought freedom of religion to the Israelites and allowed them to rebuild the temple. This is historical fact that is also recalled in Ezra:

"Thus says King Cyrus of Persia: The Lord, the God of heaven, has given me all the kingdoms of the earth, and he has charged me to build him a house at Jerusalem in Judah. Any of those among you who are is people - may their God be with them! - are now permitted to go to Jerusalem in Judah, and rebuild the house of the Lord, the God of Israel - he is the God who is in Jerusalem..."
(Ezra 1.2-3)

We discover in Second Isaiah that God was behind this decree all along. In fact, Cyrus is referred to as God's  "anointed," a moniker reserved - with this one exception - for Israelite kings and high priests. Isaiah 45 describes God will go before Cyrus and conquer everything in his way. Victory is never Cyrus' accomplishment, but rather that of the Lord.

On Poetry
Why are we to believe that Cyrus is the Lord's agent? The biblical author attempts to convince the reader in the lead-up to the description of Cyrus' campaign in Isaiah 45. A poem in Isaiah 44.24-28 eases us into the idea of Cyrus by asserting God's greatness and revealing truths that we are likely to believe. By the time we learn that Cyrus will act as God's agent, we have already agreed with the rest of the poem, so why not tack on one more thing?

It begins with an invocation

Thus says the Lord, your Redeemer,

before addressing the reader in particular:

who formed you in the womb:

The Lord then shifts from particular to universal, displaying his mastery of everything great and small:

I am the Lord, who made all things,
who alone stretched out the heavens,
who by myself spread out the earth: 

After this comes a rejection of false prophets

who frustrates the omens of liars,
and makes fools of diviners;

and a rejection of knowledge (or certain kinds of knowledge):

who turns back the wise,
and makes their knowledge foolish;

Prophets like Isaiah are to be trusted because God validates their oracles:

who confirms the word of his servant
and fulfills the predication of his messengers;

Next comes a promise, one meant to instill hope in its audience:

Who says of Jerusalem, "It shall be inhabited,"
and of the cities of Judah, "They shall be rebuilt,
and I will raise up their ruins";

What follows is an image that invokes the past while looking to the future. A reference to the deep and a dried up river recalls the exodus, one in which the Israelites will again return home.

who says of the deep, "Be dry -
I will dry up your rivers";

Finally comes the biter pill. Israel's savior will not be an Israelite. Unable to save itself, the Lord will act through an intermediary. Since the Lord has already established his track record of greatness, rejecting book knowledge in favor of prophecy, the foundation is laid for us to believe that Cyrus indeed will save Israel as an agent of God:

who says of Cyrus, "He is my shepherd,
and he shall carry out all my purpose";

Finally, the poem closes with a positive look toward the future, one inevitable as predicted by Isaiah and executed by Cyrus, both agents of the Lord himself:

and who says of Jerusalem, "It shall be rebuilt,"
and of the temple, "Your foundation shall be laid."

This is exactly what happens. The word of the Lord and the prediction of Isaiah come true and Israel once again finds itself with a place of centralized worship. We are led to believe it by a chain of plausible claims, and historically, the prediction became a reality. How much farther must one strain faith to believe it was God and not Cyrus? That answer does not come from the bible, but from the reader.

2 Kings: Two Prophets and a Digression

Elijah's Ascent to Heaven [and a long digression into Enoch]
Though the following passage only briefly touches on Elijah, I could not pass up the exploration of noncanonical biblical literature.

Elijah
The prophet Elijah does not die in the bible. Rather, he ascends into heaven in a whirlwind and chariot of fire. The reason for this, and what happens to Elijah after his ascent, is unclear. Indeed, it seems strange that the bible would relate a story about a person and not elaborate on such an astounding event. These ambiguities sparked a great deal of speculation in later literature, some of which even anticipates Elijah's return to earth. In canonical biblical literature, Malachi 4.5-6 mentions that the prophet will be sent "before the great and terrible day of the Lord." In this tale Elijah will reunite families before the day of the Lord. This restoration of the family would have been important as per Mosaic law, in which the sins of parents could ostracize later generations.

Enoch
One other man in the bible ascends to heaven: Enoch, an ancestor of Noah. There is much extrabiblical literature about Enoch, including the pseudepigraphic Book of Enoch and Book of Jubilees. All we know from the Genesis account is related in a mere seven verses in Genesis 5, only four of which relate to Enoch in particular. The verses in question appear in a passage that recounts the ten generations from Adam to Noah. With the exception of Enoch and Noah (about whom the narrative is primarily concerned), each section follows the same formula:

When A had lived X years, he became the father of B . A lived after the birth of B Y years, and had other sons and daughters. Thus all the days of A were Z years [=X+Y]; and he died."

Enoch's passage is unique in a number of ways. Of the ten generations spanning Adam to Noah, Enoch occupies the seventh. The number seven is symbolic in the Hebrew bible as suggesting completeness or perfection. Furthermore, the length of Enoch's life is 365 years. This number also suggests completeness - a complete year, to be exact. In addition, it is mentioned twice in the text that Enoch "walked with God." This by itself should not be taken literally; the phrase simply means that Enoch was a righteous man. His great grandson Noah was another man who "walked with God." However, the second appearance of this phrase is linked with very special descriptor that demonstrates Enoch's special status:

Enoch walked with God; then he was no more, because God took him.
(Gen. 5.24).

Unlike the other men listed, Enoch is not specifically said to die. Where and why God took him is a matter of speculation, as it is for Elijah later on.
In later non-canonical literature, Enoch's story is developed and the symbols of completeness associated with him are expanded upon. Enoch becomes a secretary of God, and the first ever writer. In Jubilees he pens a book that records all events of the history and future as it travels through cycles of Jubilees, which measure time in 49-year cycles: 7 "weeks" of years.
Click the above links to read the source texts, or check out the Wikipedia pages on Jubilees and 1 Enoch to learn more about the texts themselves.

Elisha's Miracles

Elisha is Elijah's protege, and seems to serve as a reference for later tales about Jesus. Those who have read Christian scripture might notice some parallels. In fact, these charismatic powers are common to many biblical characters, including Moses. All references are to 2 Kings:

• Parts water (2.14)
• Purifies undrinkable water that is even unsuitable for crops [by putting salt in it, no less!] (2.19)
• Curses 42 boys so they are mauled by bears (2.23)
• Magically multiplies oil for a widow so she can pay her debts (4.1)
• Revives a Shunammite woman's son from death (4.8)
• Purifies a pot of stew made with poisonous wild vines and gourds (4.38)
• Feeds 100 men with 20 loaves of barley and some grain, and even has some left over (4.42)
• Cures Naaman, mighty warrior and commander of the Aramean army, of his leprosy (5.1)
• Afflicts his servant Gehazi with Naaman's leprosy (5.19)
• Pulls an ax head from the Jordan with a floating stick that has apparent magnetic powers (6.1)