Esther: Reactions and Overreactions

The book of Esther is a rich narrative of palace intrigue, laden with irony and marked by detailed descriptions of the king's wealth. It is a well-written story, and one well worth reading. The book of Esther is read on Purim, a Jewish holiday whose roots are actually mentioned in the story itself. You can learn more about the story and holiday in this Itche Kadoozy video:

Visit Jewish.TV for more Jewish videos.

Oddly enough, God is mentioned nowhere within Esther. The book seems to be entirely secular. Interpreters might attribute the great coincidences to God, but no reference is made to the deity throughout the text. So what fills this God-shaped hole in the story? Irony and drinking, of course! Drinking, in fact, is part of the Purim tradition, though for obvious reasons is not mentioned in the Itche Kadoozy episode. In fact, three devices drive the plot: eunuchs, drinking, and messengers. It would be possible to chart the story of Esther, with each major advancement of plot marked by one or more of these.

What I am most interested in is issues of scale and status: reaction and overreaction in the book of Esther. Without overreaction and and reaction in kind, this book would convey an entirely different message.

The book of Esther opens with a description of the lavish parties of the Persian empire, with a vividly detailed description unlike anything we've seen up to this point:

There were white cotton curtains and blue hangings tied with cords of fine linen and purple to silver rings and marble pillars. There were couches of gold and silver on a mosaic pavement of porphyry, marble, mother-of-pearl, and colored stones. Drinks were served in golden goblets, goblets of different kinds, and the royal wine was lavished according to the bounty of the king. Drinking was by the flagons, without restraint; for the king had given orders to all the officials of his palace to do as each one desired. Furthermore, Queen Vashti gave a banquet for the women in the palace of King Ahasuerus.
(Esther 1.6-9)

The description reads like the travel writing of today, complete with the status details of drink. The author of this story emphasizes the status symbols of the era - a technique common in journalism today as a way of displaying a characteristic without saying it outright (i.e. corner office, silk tie, college graduate).

The story begins with a party thrown by King Ahasuerus for the common people. The king, under the influence of alcohol, rages when his wife will not appear before the court to display her beauty to the people. This is not a matter that can be swept away - both male and female commoners have seen the queen's disobedience, so that the king's advisers worry that women everywhere will rebel against their wives. They advise him to make a decree that Queen Vashti is to be deposed, so that "all women will give honor to their husbands, high and low alike." (Ezra 1.20).

In the above introductory story, a single, almost trivial event becomes a huge political issue because of the audience that witnessed the scene. Whether the advisers' fears would have been realized is up for debate, but the public nature of the scene certainly does force the king to take action if he wishes to remain a powerful figure in the eyes of his empire.

An empire-wide search for a new queen yields Esther, a virgin from the city of Susa who has something of a Disney princess upbringing. The beautiful Esther is Jewish (and therefore marginalized), a woman (and therefore further marginalized) and an orphan (and therefore even further marginalized). She is raised by a Benjaminte by the name of Mordecai, who adopts her as his own daughter.

When Esther is chosen, she does not reveal that she is a Jew, which will later play an important part of the story. And so, status: The marginalized Esther comes into the court of King Ahasuerus and becomes the most powerful woman in the empire. In fact, her power ends up playing an important political role. More on that later.

Now another matter of status: Though the Jewish Mordecai discovers and reports a plot to kill the king, he is not rewarded. However, the King's official Haman is promoted for no apparent reason. This creates an ironic tension when Mordecai refuses to bow down before Haman. Though Haman holds a higher rank, Mordecai has saved the king's life and is arguably a greater asset to the kingdom. It also creates a relational tension between Haman and Jews. Haman is so angered by obstinate Mordecai (a Jew!) that he plots to kill every Jew in Ahasuerus' kingdom. This is an overreaction, to say the least.

And so letters are sent out to all the people of the kingdom that Jews are all to be killed and their goods plundered on the thirteenth day of the twelfth month (Adar).

Mordecai is understandably distraught over the matter, and begs Esther to prevent the pogrom. Esther does this at great peril to herself; anyone who approaches the king without permission is by default killed, unless the king wishes otherwise.

Meanwhile, Haman plans to have Mordecai hanged, and constructs a gallows 50 cubits (75 feet) high for this purpose. Such a large gallows certainly serves to indicate overreaction. A gallows on such a large scale for a single man...Well, Haman's anger runs hot, and his actions only take place on a large scale.

Things begin to go wrong for Haman when King Ahasuerus suffers insomnia. In order to bring on sleep, the king has the book of records read to him. He discovers the story of Mordecai, and realizing the man was never rewarded, vows to help the man. Just then Haman appears, thinking very highly of himself for his honored position with the king. Ahasuerus asks, "What shall be done for the man whom the king wishes to honor?" (Esther 6.6). Haman, thinking the question refers to him, says that the man should be given the king's robes, a horse, and crown, and that he should be paraded through the city with people proclaiming his position of honor.

Much to Haman's chagrin, King Ahasuerus tells him to bestow this honor on Mordecai. Haman must even parade the man through the city, proclaiming the man's honor. Ah, cosmic justice! Haman is brought low by his own pride. Then he is raised high - hanged on the 75-foot high gallows that he constructed in order to hang Mordecai.

This brings up an important question: should Haman have been hanged for actions he only anticipated? The response by modern standards seems harsh, but Haman is responsible for plotting the destruction of all Jews. And those same men who were to exact Haman's orders - they are killed as well, by the Jews. King Ahasuerus sends a second order to all the Jews allowing them to defend their lives and destroy any armed forces that approach them. While the initial order allowing the destruction of the Jews is an overreaction, the second order levels the playing field, perhaps with the idea that two overreactions cancel each other out.

But all this is academic palaver on my part, because the point of the story is that those who were willing to take action against the Jews were destroyed. The Jews proved themselves to be not just competent, but powerful! The "overreaction" first by Mordecai and then by King Ahasueras allows the Jews to demonstrate their power as a force to be reckoned with.

Because of the "God-less" nature of this book, however, we arrive at quite a different interpretation of what this destruction means. According to the book of Esher, the Israelites are a powerful people unto themselves. They do not rely on the power of God. Even those living in the contemporary times of Ezra and Nehemiah asked the Lord for protection. But the Israelites in the book of Esther do not seem to rely on God for protection - and at the very least do not invoke his name. This makes the book peculiar within the biblical canon, but a fascinating story nonetheless.

Nehemiah II: Internal Threats in the Quest for a Jewish Identity

The Israelites are back in Jerusalem after their exile in Babylon. Reconstruction of the wall around the city has been completed, and for a time the Israelites do not have to worry about external threats from governors in the area such as Sanballat and Tobiah. With God and a physical wall for protection, the Jews no longer have to expend energy worrying about attacks. This energy is instead expended on reforming life within the city walls. The Israelites have forgotten some of the practices and laws of their ancestors, and now must return to God.

[To read more about the external threats to Israel during the period of Nehemiah's leadership leading to the completion of the wall, see Tuesday's post: Nehemiah I: External Threats in the Quest for a Jewish Identity.]

Inside
I am not trying to impose this idea of external to internal on the text; the biblical author, in fact, is the one that cleverly keeps the externally-focused and internally-focused sections of Nehemiah separated by the completion of the wall. Starting with Nehemiah 7, we are held within the wall, as the Israelites rediscover the proper worship of God from within.

Nehemiah 7 is comprised mainly of a genealogy of the people living in Jerusalem. Note that once the narrative shifts its focus to the people of Israel, the major characters are now listed.

In Nehemiah 8, Ezra reestablishes regular worship of the Lord through his reading of the book of the law of Moses. [Read more about outside sources and sources of shame that inform the book that bears Ezra's name] Interestingly, Levites move among the people while the book is being read, in order that the people may better understand the text. Whether this is translation or interpretation, the author does not specify. However, it is clear that correct understanding of and therefore adherence to the Law of Moses is of the utmost importance, even for the laity. The Jewish faith is to be one based on the rules God establishes: an orthopraxic faith instead of an orthodox one (i.e. a faith based on proper practice, as Islam is, rather than proper belief, as Christianity is). The detail also helps to establish the active role of the Levites as intermediaries between the divine and mundane realms.

The return to old sources continues the next day, as the heads of the ancestral households join the priests, Levites, and Ezra to study the law. In this way, the festival of booths is rediscovered and reestablished.

Nehemiah 9 features the national confession of the Israelite religion, and emphasizes the holiness (meaning "separateness") of Israelite religion. This separation of Israel from the rest of the world is clear in certain practices in Judaism, such as kosher laws. Actions of separation serve to emphasize that the Jews are "a people apart."

This is further emphasized in Nehemiah 13, when it is found in the book of Moses that "no Ammonite or Moabite should ever enter the assembly of God" (Nehemiah 13.1), based on Balaam's historic curse against the Israelites. In fact, the people interpret this prohibition to include all foreigners, further removing Israel from the other people of the land.

Nehemiah 9 also contains the history of the Israelites, as read by Ezra. Throughout, the dialectical tensions are apparent: this is the cyclical framework on which the Bible is written. The oration ends with a clear statement of the present situation:

Now therefore, our God—the great and mighty and awesome God, keeping covenant and steadfast love—do not treat lightly all the hardship that has come upon us, upon our kings, our officials, our priests, our prophets, our ancestors, and all your people, since the time of the kings of Assyria until today. You have been just in all that has come upon us, for you have dealt faithfully and we have acted wickedly; our kings, our officials, our priests, and our ancestors have not kept your law or heeded the commandments and the warnings that you gave them. Even in their own kingdom, and in the great goodness you bestowed on them, and in the large and rich land that you set before them, they did not serve you and did not turn from their wicked works. Here we are, slaves to this day—slaves in the land that you gave to our ancestors to enjoy its fruit and its good gifts. Its rich yield goes to the kings whom you have set over us because of our sins; they have power also over our bodies and over our livestock at their pleasure, and we are in great distress.
Nehemiah 9.32-37

Even in their present condition, the Israelites are still in debt to God for the actions of their ancestors. God's steadfast love has always been accessible, but it has been rejected time and time again. This is the beauty of the bible, and comprises the biblical narrative itself. The constant back-and-forth between God and his people is based on humankind's disposition to disobey God, and God's promise of steadfast love. It is a story we can even read into today, if we wish. [Well, maybe not today. It's getting late.]

A new covenant is signed in Nehemiah 10, reaffirming the law of Moses, as well as putting a contemporary spin on some of the laws in order to suit the time period. The law evidently must change over time as society and the Israelites' situation evolves.

Even by the end of the chapter, the dialectical tensions express themselves in full force as the people of Jerusalem revert to abhorrent practices. The once-reviled governor Tobiah has been given a room in the house of God, and the Levites have not received their just portions.

As a final measure of reform and expression of separateness, Nehemiah reemphasizes the Sabbath and forbids mixed marriage. The Israelites have been separated from outsiders, and must remain separate.

The chapter ends with a fitting request from Nehemiah, who has done so much as governor to reestablish a just Israelite society:

Remember me, O my God, for good.
(Nehemiah 13.31)

Nehemiah I: External Threats in the Quest for a Jewish Identity

This post is part of a two-post series. The second portion will be posted Thursday, March 24 under the title, "Nehemiah II: Internal Threats in the Quest for a Jewish Identity."

The tales of Ezra and Nehemiah mark the beginning of the postexilic period, in which the Israelites attempt to reestablish themselves in Judah under the auspices of King Cyrus of Persia. After dispersal, the Israelites (or Jews, as they are referred to by outsiders) rally around two major building projects: the temple and the wall. The story of the rebuilding of the Temple is told in Ezra. The rebuilding of the wall of Jerusalem is told in Nehemiah.

The Jews were again dispersed in 70 C.E., this time by the Romans. Had it not been for events well over half-a-century ago, this story of redemption in Ezra and Nehemiah could have been timeless, without parallel in the modern world. But it's a story that played itself out again not so long ago, with the creation of the modern state of Israel in 1948. That nation likewise faced and faces the hostility of its neighbors.

One of the formulas of biblical literature is the repetition of events as a way of showing that the undercurrents of our lives are timeless. Apostasy and repentance, destruction and renewal are constant cycles. Even after the codification of the bible, the themes within the tale continue to repeat themselves. This will be partially apparent in today's post, but really come to light Thursday. Today we will focus on the struggles of reestablishing the center of Israelite worship: the house of God or temple.

The story up to this point:
Israel and Jerusalem were ruled for years by kings, some wicked and some good. The wicked ones would destroy the work of the good ones through their apostasy, and the good ones would reconstruct the great society that was destroyed by the wicked kings. First the northern kingdom of Israel is taken, then the southern kingdom of Judah. The residents of Judah are overtaken by the Chaldeans and taken to Babylon. They are granted liberty by King Cyrus of Persia some 50 years later (historically; the bible indicates 70 as a more perfect symbolic number). And so the difficult task of rebuilding society may begin.

This is not to say that previous books do not point toward a Jewish/Israelite identity. They do. I chose the book of Nehemiah to feature this point because there is so much condensed evidence to support the idea, coming at a time when Jewish community was of supreme importance as it re-forms itself in the postexilic period.

Setting the Stage

The book of Nehemiah opens with news of the destruction and shame of Jerusalem:

The survivors there in the province who escaped captivity are in great trouble and shame; the wall of Jerusalem is broken down, and its gates have been destroyed by fire.
(Nehemiah 1.3)

This is followed by the first of many prayers to appear in the book of Nehemiah. Appearing in Nehemiah 1.5-11, the prayer first invokes the covenant and God's steadfast love that accompanies it. This is followed by an acknowledgement of sin, and a reminder of God's covenant with Moses:

"If you are unfaithful, I will scatter you among the peoples; but if you return to me and keep my commandments and do them, though your outcasts are under the farthest skies, I will gather them from there and bring them to the place at which I have chosen to establish my name."
(Nehemiah 1.8-9)

The prayer closes with an entreaty that God hear and act on the prayer.

This prayer effectively explains the back story of this narrative and explicates the themes that will appear throughout: the dialectical tension between God and humankind, God's everlasting love, and pity on marginalized groups.

Politics
Nehemiah is cup bearer to King Artaxerxes - which is actually an important office with a degree of political clout in the Persian court. He therefore stands to actually have some impact in his words to the king. In fact, Artaxerxes gives Nehemiah permission to rebuild the city of his ancestors, and provides the him with letters granting safe passage and access to timber for the rebuilding of the city. Nehemiah and the other exiles are accompanied to Jerusalem by officers from the army and cavalry.

Nehemiah 5.14-19 marks a peculiar section in which Nehemiah records the food and drink served at his table, with a strong emphasis that this is all provided without taking advantage of the king's assistance - an allowance of food that Artaxerxes provides to governors. Nehemiah remains as independent from the king as possible while still maintaining good political ties that will benefit Israel. In any case, Nehemiah rejects the allowance in favor of food produced by his own people. This section ends in one of his many prayers, this one a bit self-serving, as though the man is trying to memorialize himself for humans as well as God:

Remember for my good, O my God, all that I have done for this people.
(Nehemiah 5.19)

Threats
Local governors voice their opposition to the rebuilding from the very beginning. Sanballat the Horonite and Tobiah the Ammonite threaten great grief for the Israelites. These characters will show up to threaten the well-being of the Israelites, after which Nehemiah consistently petitions God for justice or protection. Examples:

Nehemiah 4.4-5
A prayer to God asking for retribution for the insults the Israelites suffer.

Nehemiah 4.9
Mention of a prayer for protection. This is supplemented by a guard protecting Jerusalem. Nehemiah places troops around the wall to defend against impending attack, and construction continues with an air of readiness for battle. The people are told:

“The work is great and widely spread out, and we are separated far from one another on the wall. Rally to us wherever you hear the sound of the trumpet. Our God will fight for us.”
(Nehemiah 4.19-20)

This statement of faith in God confirms the historic precedent that God will indeed fight on behalf of Israel.

Nehemiah 6.9
A short prayer, asking God to "strengthen my hands" as Nehemiah continues construction of the wall in the face of threats from Sanballat, Tobiah, and Geshom the Arab.

Nehemiah 6.14
A petition to God for retribution on Tobiah, Sanballat, and the conspiring false prophets, for their roles in an assassination plot against Nehemiah.

The Wall
Nehemiah guides the people in the construction of the wall around Jerusalem, which serves to protect Israel from external threats. The rebuilding of the wall of Jerusalem is a collaborative effort between the Israelites. Nehemiah 3 is comprised of a survey of all those who participated, and how and where they helped out.

When the wall is completed, it is said that,

 All the nations around us were afraid and fell greatly in their own esteem; for they perceived that this work had been accomplished with the help of our God.
(Nehemiah 6.16)

After the completion of the wall, Jerusalem no longer needs to fear the external threat so greatly. It now has God and a physical barrier for protection. However, interior life must be reformed as well if the Jews are to maintain their protected status under God...

Ezra: Shame and a Remote God

Today's post takes another look at the book of Ezra, focusing on the shame that Ezra feels for the Israelites as they try to shed the past in order to establish a new future.

Read last week's post on Ezra: Looking in: Outside Sources in Ezra.

Ezra's Shame
Ezra is a particularly devout priest and scribe who is charged by King Artaxerxes with reestablishing the Israelites in Jerusalem. As a devout man, he is very conscious of the sins of Israel. He lives in a time when Israel stands able to reestablish itself as a legitimate nation as well as the legitimate people of God. However, there is a lot of work to do in order to reestablish both temple worship and a proper two-way dialog with God.

Ezra leaves Babylonia with a group of Israelites and plenty of provisions to reestablish the temple, and stops along the river Ahava, sending back for Levites to accompany the party to Jerusalem. There Ezra commands a fast in order to ask for God's protection:

Then I proclaimed a fast there, at the river Ahava, that we might deny ourselves before our God, to seek from him a safe journey for ourselves, our children, and all our possessions. For I was ashamed to ask the king for a band of soldiers and cavalry to protect us against the enemy on our way, since we had told the king  that the hand of our God is gracious to all who seek him, but his power and his wrath are against all who forsake him. So we fasted and petitioned our God for this, and he listened to our entreaty.
(Ezra 8.21-23)

The relationship between God and humanity has been put under immense strain, and Ezra's wording makes apparent and incomplete faith in the Lord on the part of the Israelites. Generally, God offers protection in matters without people having to ask for it. Instances of theophany (i.e. divine revelation) have God grant protection to a character. In the days after the exile, however, God's relationship with his people is strained. Ezra must actively ask for protection.

Ezra also reveals the historical mindset, which seems to be emerging from less-than-complete devotion to the Lord. Before the Babylonian exile, a leader would not be "ashamed" of asking a band of foreign soldiers for protection because such soldiers would be considered superfluous, even insulting to God. Before the Babylonian exile, this group would be rejected outright in favor of God's protection. Ezra, however, at least considers the two options, indicating an incomplete trust in God. His decision is a matter of pride, as though Ezra has to prove that his God is capable of destroying the enemy. For someone who has lived in captivity without centralized worship, this view is not surprising. The community and leadership that instilled faith in God has disappeared. Now faith must be found again.

There is a bit of housekeeping to do in order to resubmit to God. During their time in Babylon, and probably even before this, a number of men took foreign wives. This is a forbidden practice known as exogamy (meaning marriage outside of a clan or group). The bible maintains that exogamy is proven path to the greatest sin: apostasy (meaning the abandonment of God). Maintaining strict worship of God only is the first commandment listed in the Decalogue (Ten Commandments; see Exodus 20 and Deuteronomy 5). The texbook case of exogamy leading to apostasy occurs in the story of Solomon's apostasy, in which Solomon's lust for foreign women leads to the worship of foreign gods, which breaks the covenant between God and David and leads to the divided monarchy, which eventually devolves into the whole mess the descendants of Israel find themselves in from the reign of King Nebuchadnezzar until Ezra's time.

Shame is the acutest emotion Ezra feels in the book that bears his name, with two explicit descriptions of the emotion and events that lead to it. The first is described above. The second comes upon learning of the people of Israel's exogamy. Ezra reacts to the information with traditional displays of mourning: tearing his garment and pulling out his hair. Then he prays to the Lord with words that convey his deep sense of shame:

"Oh my God, I am too ashamed and embarrassed to lift my face to you, my God, for our iniquities have risen higher than our heads, and our guilt has mounted up to the heavens."
(Ezra 9.6)

Ezra continues to express his shame on behalf of the people, recounting their iniquities. At least some of this shame is a result of God's kindness. Ezra notes that Israel could be worse off, were God less devoted to his people. Perhaps he is fearful that further sin will push God "over the edge" as it were:

"After all that has come upon us for our evil deeds and for our great guilt, seeing that you, our God, have punished us less than our iniquities deserved and have given us such a remnant as this, shall we break your commandments again and intermarry with the peoples who practice these abominations? Would you not be angry with us until you destroy us without remnant or survivor? O Lord, God of Israel, you are just, but we have escaped as a remnant, as is now the case. Here we are before you in our guilt, though no one can face you because of this."
(Ezra 9.13-15)

The group takes action. The men who return to Jerusalem with foreign wives are ultimately swayed to send them away (and with them, possibly, the children). But it is important to note that the author of Ezra does not have God act directly. Throughout all of the shame and alienation, Ezra is not a man who receives the word of God. His conversation seems to be one-way.

A Remote God
The author of Ezra's tone fits in perfectly with the historical reality of the time. Ezra is always supplicating God, never knowing if God appreciates the actions. Ezra does credit God with causing king Artaxerxes to let God's people return to Jerusalem. However, in the rest of the book action towards God is never reciprocated. God is praised but does not take direct action. God is remote. There is a wall between God and Israel - of Israel's own construction - that must be breached. Israel must work hard in order to reestablish a relationship with God, so that God will once again be an active player in Israelite life.

Looking in: Outside Sources In Ezra

The biblical author of any given section of the bible integrates a number of sources, some of which are specifically written for the bible, some of which evolved as theological or non-theological folk tales, and some of which are archival material. This archival material might include lists, psalms, genealogies, epistles, or other items.

The book of Ezra is a perfect candidate for examining the sourcing of the bible (1) because it is short, and (2) because the sourcing is rather apparent. The author of Ezra uses a variety of sources (or, at least, sources that were never meant to be included in the text), including lists, decrees, and correspondences. Some of the items may have even been invented by the author. These are all woven together into a cohesive story line that tells the tale of God's people after their return from exile in Babylon.

How do we know that there are multiple sources for this document? To answer that we must examine the text of the bible briefly.

One of our strongest clues to multiple sources is that Ezra 4.7-6.18 is written entirely in Aramaic, in a very bureaucratic style. This indicates that it likely came from a separate Aramaic source, probably a government document. Most of the rest of Ezra is written in Hebrew. You can even tell that the original author of Ezra 4.7-6.18 was not an Israelite by a simple analysis of their diction. In fact, Ezra 4.12 marks the first place in the bible that the word Jew is used. The Israelites referred to themselves as, well, "Israelites" or "God's people" or something like that. It is only outsiders that refer to the Israelites as Jews during this time period. In fact, the term "Jew" appears in the books of Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther, and then does not appear again all the way until the book of Daniel! A whole nine books exist in that space, none with a reference to "Jews." This is because they come from different sources than Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther - sources that do not include Persian governmental correspondence.

Another term unique to this section is "Beyond the River." The Israelites live "Beyond the River" from the point of view of Persia. However, the Israelites would not refer to themselves as the people "Beyond the River" because they are the people meant to be on that very side of the river!

One final indication is that the bible switches from third-person narration to first-person narration in Ezra 7.27. The story therefore shifts from a tale about the Israelites to a tale about Ezra told through Ezra's point of view. As we will see, the shift in narrator will be common in prophetic literature, in which third-person introductions are written about prophets before their warnings are given in the first-person.

What you will find below is a listing of the chronicled/archival/governmental sources in Ezra. These sources are wonderful because they help to tell the story, in the same way that "found" items in modern literature, such as the text of letters or songs within the body of a novel, give meaning and understanding to the story as a whole. Without the governmental letters, we would not understand as well exactly how the Israelites were being treated. Perhaps the accounts are exaggerated or otherwise modified by the biblical author, but the epistolary works allow us something of an up-close look at how life was lived.

The Sources:

1.2-4
A decree from King Cyrus of Persia allowing the people of Judah to return to Jerusalem, reestablish worship, and rebuild their temple.

1.9-11
An inventory of the vessels of the house of the Lord that King Cyrus restores for the rebuilding of the house.

2.1-70 (All of chapter 2)
A list of the returned exiles, totaling 42,360, along with 7,337 servants, 200 singers, 736 horses, 245 mules, 435 camels, and 6,712 donkeys. A list of their dedications to the house of God is also given.

3.11
A quote from a song to the Lord.

4.11-16
The text of a letter, written in Aramaic, from political leaders to King Artaxerxes of Persia. The letter urges the king to search the annals of his ancestors for evidence that the inhabitants of Jerusalem are rebellious people.

4.17-22
A response to the political leaders from King Artaxerxes recounting the king's command to search through the annals and the result. Upon discovering the history of God's people, Artaxerxes commands the political leaders to make the Israelites cease building their city.

5.7-17
A letter from Tattenai, the governor of the province Beyond the River, to Darius, king of Persia. The letter informs the king that the building of the house of God has resumed. The governor describes questioning the elders of Jerusalem, and their reply that details the history of the people - how God gave their ancestors into the hands of King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylin, and how King Cyrus commanded the rebuilding of the house of God. The letter ends with a request from Tattenai that the king search the royal archives in Babylon for proof of King Cyrus' decree.

6.2-5
The text of King Cyrus' decree. The document is not found in Babylon, but rather in Ecbatana, the capital of the province of Media. The text of King Cyrus' command is here recorded.

6.6-12
What follows King Cyrus' decree, without transition, is a letter from King Darius to Tattenai. Not only does Darius allow the building of the house of God, but he funds it as well from the royal revenue, "so that they may offer pleasing sacrifices to the God of heaven, and pray for the life of the king and his children" (Ezra 6.10). A rather harsh sentence is established for any that alters the command.

6.17
A list of the animals sacrificed at the dedication of the house of God.

7.1-5
The genealogy of a priest/scribe named Ezra is given, tracing all the way back to the priest Aaron . This passage establishes Ezra's credentials in the story.

7.12-26
A copy of a letter from King Artaxerxes to Ezra, who is a renowned scholar of the "text of the commandments of the Lord and his statutes for Israel." (Ezra 7.11) The letter provides for a great number of things, including permission for any of the Israelites (priests and Levites included) to go to Jerusalem; this, "according to the law of your God." Ezra and the other Israelites are to carry silver and gold offered by the king, to be used for the purchase of animals for sacrifice, as well as grain and drink offerings. They are also to transport vessels and anything else the temple requires, out of the king's treasury.

Artaxerxes commands the treasurers Beyond the River to provide everything Ezra requires, up to a certain amount (except for salt, which is to be given freely). According to the words of Artaxerxes, this is all done out of the fear of God: "Whatever is commanded by the God of heaven, let it be done with zeal for the house of the God of heaven, or wrath will come upon the realm of the king and his heirs." (Ezra 7.21-23) Furthermore, the Israelites will not be taxed based on what they withdraw.

Ezra is also commanded to appoint magistrates and judges for the Israelites in the province Beyond the River. The Israelites are still under the jurisdiction of the King, but they are at least able to govern themselves.

8.1-14
A list of families that returned with Ezra, numbered.

8.18-20
A list of the Levites that are sent for to accompany the traveling band to Jerusalem.


8.24-27
An account of the counting and weighing of the silver, gold, ad vessels brought on the journey. [Though this is not an outside source, it serves as an example of the creation of a source, a record of the amount and weight of objects brought from Babylon to Jerusalem.


8.35
An account of the offerings of those who came from captivity into Jerusalem.

10.18-44
A list of men who were found to have foreign wives, and who pledged to send away these wives and present guilt offerings to the Lord. Possibly the children are sent away as well, but this cannot be determined by the source text.

Hold your head high, everybody. The topic of next week's post: Shame.

2 Chronicles 26-36: Kings, Bubbles, Apostasy!

The final Chronicles post! After this it's onto Ezra and Nehemiah! If you haven't been following the Chronicles blogs, you might be interested in checking out previous posts, linked below.

1 Chronicles 1-9 [Infographic]
Comparative Literature: 1 Chronicles 10-26 as a Retelling of 2 Samuel
2 Chronicles 2-9: A Political Detail
2 Chronicles 10-16: Dialectical Tensions in Judah I
2 Chronicles 17-25: Dialectical Tensions in Judah II

As today's post is rather long and deals with a diverse range of topics, I have divided it into sections:

Truth in Chronicles
Bubble Kings
Kings Uzziah and Jotham
Ahaz the Wicked King
Hezekiah the Faithful King
Intermediary Kings
The Mostly Faithful King Josiah
The Final Kings of Chronicles
The Fall of Jerusalem and Aftermath

Truth in Chronicles
Truth in the Bible can be a tricky thing to define. It can be said that there are different levels or types of truth in biblical literature. Truth does not always necessarily mean fact. In the bible, it takes on a more literary form than what we know today, something like a "universal truth." Below are a few terms that are useful in describing Biblical "truth."

Historicized Fiction Functions like the genre of storytelling we know today as historical fiction. Fictional events occur and fictional characters interact against the backdrop of a historical time period. The tale of Abraham serves as one example. Besides the biblical text (and noncanonical biblical texts), there is no evidence that Abraham was a historical person; he is very likely a fictional person - an archetype of a righteous man, the patriarch of a people. The intention of the biblical author is to tell a certain story. If we run with this idea, Abraham must be a fictional character set in historical times.

Fictionalized History presents historically verifiable figures whose actions, circumstances, possessions, etc. may have been fictionalized in order to make a point. In fact, a fair amount of the information found in the Chronicler's description of the kings of Judah is attested to by nonbiblical works. It is fairly certain, however, that some of these historical events have been exaggerated or otherwise fictionalized, often in an attempt to prove God's greatness.

Throughout the Book of Kings and Chronicles, the authors emphasize God's ability to shape history, based on the actions of the kings and people of Judah. When God's people is faithful, kings literally clean up the Temple and figuratively clean up worship practices. They win their battles with God's assistance. When God's people is unfaithful, and wicked kings defile the Temple with devotion to idols, the king and people alike are punished with invasions from foreign lands.

The above example is in fact a form of fictionalized history. This is not to say that God is ficitonal. Rather, the biblical author ascribes action to a character/force beyond human comprehension, The captivity in Babylon is a historical reality. The biblical author fictionalizes the reality by attributing it to some outside influence that cannot be proven by physical means.

The biblical author would probably not understand or care for the difference between historicized fiction and fictionalized history. For him, the stories would have simply been true. They are true by virtue of the author's meaning of truth, one that differs from our modern definition of scientific, factual truth.

The truth of the bible is true in the same way as the stories in Tim O'Brien's The Things They Carried. What matters not is the historical reality, but the universal message behind the story.

Dialectical Tensions overlap with Fictionalized History. The constant differential between God's will and human action: These are the pressures that give shape and structure to the biblical narrative.

Bubble Kings
For anyone that follows the economy, or are really sore about it, it might help to take a look at the cycle of kings presented in the Books of Kings and Chronicles in terms of bubbles (and while you're at it, read anything and everything by Matt Taibbi). Market bubbles, dialectical tension bubbles...Whatever. The point is that there is imbalance until the bubble pops.

Strict regulation [adherence to God's word] means things go pretty well, though there isn't much room to - you know - stretch out and test the limits. As regulations are chiseled away [i.e. kings fall from God's will] by human nature manifested by greed [and apostasy], things go well for a while, or at least people think they do. In reality, a bubble is forming, a pressure differential that arises from what is promised and what in reality exists [In the case of the economic crisis, money. In the case of the bible, adherence to God's word]. Just as in nature, the bubble cannot sustain itself, and it bursts. The bank goes under. Judah is invaded.

Here's where the metaphor gets really sick and twisted. For some reason these bubbles continue. For some reason they are allowed to happen. In the Bible, God allows for a certain degree of human freedom before he himself teaches his own people a lesson. Old generations are replaced, and the cycle generally finds a good king to lead again. In case of the financial crisis, the U.S. government allows for a certain degree of freedom before the whole thing comes crashing down on its own accord. And then it bails out the people who perpetrated the crime.

Allow me to take my metaphor too far: the state of safety is adherence to God. [And you can draw your own conclusions about the parallel metaphor.]

But I progress.

Kings Uzziah and Jotham

Uzziah

As long as he sought the Lord, God made him prosper.
(2 Chronicles 26.5)

So the Chronicler says of King Uzziah. He is supported by God and therefore victorious in war. he build cities, but like Rehoboam before him, he grows proud once he becomes strong, ultimately to his own destruction. He attempts to offer incense to the Lord without the priests, and for this he suffers leprosy. But the kingdom of Uzziah is never directly punished for the king's pride.

Jotham
Jotham likewise is a righteous king - more righteous even than his father. He builds cities and succeeds in war.

Ahaz the Wicked King
Ahaz is so wicked - walking in the ways of the kings of Israel (whom the Chronicler believes to be unified against the Lord), casting idols, having his sons pass through fire - that the apostasy bubble bursts and Judah collapses beneath him under attacks by Aram, then Israel, then the Edomites. These attacks are all divinely sanctioned - and deadly. The attack by Israel results in the death of 120,000 valiant warriors of Judah.

Hezekiah the Faithful King
Hezekiah brings goodness, back to Judah, and so the dialectical tensions pull Judah back to God. Hezekiah delivers Judah from its evil ways and initiates sweeping reforms to clean up Judah literally and figuratively. Such action is only possible by a good leader; wicked leaders are not associated with building and cleaning projects. Under him the Temple is cleansed, pagan shrines are destroyed, worship of God is restored, and the roles of priests and Levites are reestablished.

All this is celebrated with a great passover that lasts seven days and includes the sacrifice of over 2,000 bulls and 17,000 sheep. Writes the Chronicler:

There was great joy in Jerusalem, for since the time of Solomon son of King David of Israel there had been nothing like this in Jerusalem.
(2 Chronicles 30.26)

And, furthermore, we find a statement affirming the reward/punishment cycle of dialectical tensions:

And every work that he undertook in the service of the house of God, and in accordance with the law and the commandments, to seek his God, he did with all his heart; and he prospered.
(2 Chronicles 31.21)

The true test of piety comes when King Sennacherib of Assyria invades Judah. Previously this is where kings (e.g. King Rehoboam) have turned their backs on God and put their faith in human works instead. But Hezekiah remains pious. The Lord in turns protects Judah from the invasion.

The king’s pride results in only one instance of wrath. In a strange scene, Hezekiah becomes sick to the point of death, prays to the Lord, and refuses to accept the Lord’s sign. In the bible’s laconic style, little information about the sign or the illness is given. All we know is that Hezekiah refuses the Lord’s sign out of pride. However, he humbles himself, and all of Jerusalem with him, and the wrath of the Lord does not fall upon Judah.

Intermediary Kings
Manasseh is a wicked king of Judah, though he repents in his latter days. After he misleads Judah and pays no heed to the Lord, he is taken away by the King of Assyria in manacles and fetters. But, as per the flexible dialectical tensions, he is restored to his kingship at Jerusalem when he prays and repents:

Then Manasseh knew that the Lord was indeed God.
(2 Chronicles 33.13)

Unfortunately, the people of Judah still sacrifice at the high places to the Lord. Worship is conducted in an improper place...

The Mostly Faithful King Josiah
King Josiah finds the correct outlet for worship of the Lord. His reign begins at the tender age of eight, and despite this he is one of the greatest kings. Josiah demolishes all signifiers of apostasy and centers worship again in Jerusalem.  He even purges the house of the Lord, during which time the book of the law of Moses is discovered.

The message is dire, as delivered by the prophet Huldah. However, Josiah experiences a quasi-Davidic moment as he discovers that he personally will not be punished for the sins of Israel:

Thus says the Lord: I will indeed bring disaster upon this place and upon its inhabitants, all the curses that are written in the book that was read before the king of Judah. Because they have forsaken me and have made offerings to other gods, so that they have provoked me to anger with all the works of their hands, my wrath will be poured out on this place and will not be quenched. But as to the king of Judah, who sent you to inquire of the Lord, thus shall you say to him: Thus says the Lord, the God of Israel: Regarding the words that you have heard, because your heart was penitent and you humbled yourself before God when you heard his words against this place and its inhabitants, and you have humbled yourself before me, and have torn your clothes and wept before me, I also have heard you, says the Lord. I will gather you to your ancestors and you shall be gathered to your grave in peace; your eyes shall not see all the disaster that I will bring on this place and its inhabitants.
(2 Chronicles 34.2-28)

Afterward, adherence to the covenant of the Lord is resumed under King Josiah:

All his days they did not turn away from following the Lord the god of their ancestors
(2 Chronicles 34.33)

Josiah, in fact,  celebrates a passover even greater than that of King Hezekiah:

No passover like it had been kept in Israel since the days of the prophet Samuel; none of the kings of Israel had kept such a passover as was kept by Josiah, by the priests and the Levites, by all Judah and Israel who were present, and by the inhabitants of Jerusalem.
(2 Chronicles 35.18)

But even the righteous Josiah is undone with a test to his devotion to the Lord. King Josiah enters battle with Pharaoh Neco of Egypt, who warns him, through the words of the Lord:

“What have I to do with you, king of Judah? I am not coming against you today, but against the house with which I am at war; and God has commanded me to hurry. Cease opposing God, who is with me, so that he will not destroy you.”
(2 Chronicles 35.21)

Josiah is ultimately killed by the Egyptian army. But even in his prideful death, he is mourned by his followers.

The Final Kings of Chronicles

2 Chronicles ends with a string of kings:

• Jehoahaz - About whom we learn nothing of greatness or evil. He is deposed by the Egyptian king, and his brother Eliakim is made king; his name is changed to Jehoiakim.
• Jehoiakim - Who is evil, and who is carried off to Babylon by King Nebuchadnezzar.
• Jehoiachin - Who is evil. He is deposed by Nebuchadnezzar and taken to Babylon.
• Zedekiah - Who is evil. He, the people, and the priests are all unfaithful, and pollute the house of the Lord. He is the last King of Judah.

The Fall of Jerusalem and Aftermath
Ultimately, God decides to cleanse the land of ungrateful people. The Lord raises the king of the Chaldeans against God's people, and there is no mercy in the slaughter of men and women of Judah and destruction of Jerusalem. Survivors are deported to Babylon. The land gets a rest from God's people for a while:

All the days that it lay desolate it kept sabbath, to fulfill seventy years.
(2 Chronicles 36.21)

Chronicles ends with a glimmer of hope, however, as King Cyrus of Persia allows the exiles to return to Judah and rebuild the temple. In fact, this is the edict of God, according to Cyrus (according to the Chronicler!):

The Lord, the God of heaven, has given me all the kingdoms of the earth, and he has charged me to build him a house at Jerusalem, which is in Judah. Whoever is among you of all his people, may the Lord his God be with him! Let him go up.
(2 Chronicles 36.23)

So ends Chronicles. And so begins a new chapter in the history of God's chosen people.