The biblical author of any given section of the bible integrates a number of sources, some of which are specifically written for the bible, some of which evolved as theological or non-theological folk tales, and some of which are archival material. This archival material might include lists, psalms, genealogies, epistles, or other items.
The book of Ezra is a perfect candidate for examining the sourcing of the bible (1) because it is short, and (2) because the sourcing is rather apparent. The author of Ezra uses a variety of sources (or, at least, sources that were never meant to be included in the text), including lists, decrees, and correspondences. Some of the items may have even been invented by the author. These are all woven together into a cohesive story line that tells the tale of God's people after their return from exile in Babylon.
How do we know that there are multiple sources for this document? To answer that we must examine the text of the bible briefly.
One of our strongest clues to multiple sources is that Ezra 4.7-6.18 is written entirely in Aramaic, in a very bureaucratic style. This indicates that it likely came from a separate Aramaic source, probably a government document. Most of the rest of Ezra is written in Hebrew. You can even tell that the original author of Ezra 4.7-6.18 was not an Israelite by a simple analysis of their diction. In fact, Ezra 4.12 marks the first place in the bible that the word Jew is used. The Israelites referred to themselves as, well, "Israelites" or "God's people" or something like that. It is only outsiders that refer to the Israelites as Jews during this time period. In fact, the term "Jew" appears in the books of Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther, and then does not appear again all the way until the book of Daniel! A whole nine books exist in that space, none with a reference to "Jews." This is because they come from different sources than Ezra, Nehemiah, and Esther - sources that do not include Persian governmental correspondence.
Another term unique to this section is "Beyond the River." The Israelites live "Beyond the River" from the point of view of Persia. However, the Israelites would not refer to themselves as the people "Beyond the River" because they are the people meant to be on that very side of the river!
One final indication is that the bible switches from third-person narration to first-person narration in Ezra 7.27. The story therefore shifts from a tale about the Israelites to a tale about Ezra told through Ezra's point of view. As we will see, the shift in narrator will be common in prophetic literature, in which third-person introductions are written about prophets before their warnings are given in the first-person.
What you will find below is a listing of the chronicled/archival/governmental sources in Ezra. These sources are wonderful because they help to tell the story, in the same way that "found" items in modern literature, such as the text of letters or songs within the body of a novel, give meaning and understanding to the story as a whole. Without the governmental letters, we would not understand as well exactly how the Israelites were being treated. Perhaps the accounts are exaggerated or otherwise modified by the biblical author, but the epistolary works allow us something of an up-close look at how life was lived.
The Sources:
1.2-4
A decree from King Cyrus of Persia allowing the people of Judah to return to Jerusalem, reestablish worship, and rebuild their temple.
1.9-11
An inventory of the vessels of the house of the Lord that King Cyrus restores for the rebuilding of the house.
2.1-70 (All of chapter 2)
A list of the returned exiles, totaling 42,360, along with 7,337 servants, 200 singers, 736 horses, 245 mules, 435 camels, and 6,712 donkeys. A list of their dedications to the house of God is also given.
3.11
A quote from a song to the Lord.
4.11-16
The text of a letter, written in Aramaic, from political leaders to King Artaxerxes of Persia. The letter urges the king to search the annals of his ancestors for evidence that the inhabitants of Jerusalem are rebellious people.
4.17-22
A response to the political leaders from King Artaxerxes recounting the king's command to search through the annals and the result. Upon discovering the history of God's people, Artaxerxes commands the political leaders to make the Israelites cease building their city.
5.7-17
A letter from Tattenai, the governor of the province Beyond the River, to Darius, king of Persia. The letter informs the king that the building of the house of God has resumed. The governor describes questioning the elders of Jerusalem, and their reply that details the history of the people - how God gave their ancestors into the hands of King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylin, and how King Cyrus commanded the rebuilding of the house of God. The letter ends with a request from Tattenai that the king search the royal archives in Babylon for proof of King Cyrus' decree.
6.2-5
The text of King Cyrus' decree. The document is not found in Babylon, but rather in Ecbatana, the capital of the province of Media. The text of King Cyrus' command is here recorded.
6.6-12
What follows King Cyrus' decree, without transition, is a letter from King Darius to Tattenai. Not only does Darius allow the building of the house of God, but he funds it as well from the royal revenue, "so that they may offer pleasing sacrifices to the God of heaven, and pray for the life of the king and his children" (Ezra 6.10). A rather harsh sentence is established for any that alters the command.
6.17
A list of the animals sacrificed at the dedication of the house of God.
7.1-5
The genealogy of a priest/scribe named Ezra is given, tracing all the way back to the priest Aaron . This passage establishes Ezra's credentials in the story.
7.12-26
A copy of a letter from King Artaxerxes to Ezra, who is a renowned scholar of the "text of the commandments of the Lord and his statutes for Israel." (Ezra 7.11) The letter provides for a great number of things, including permission for any of the Israelites (priests and Levites included) to go to Jerusalem; this, "according to the law of your God." Ezra and the other Israelites are to carry silver and gold offered by the king, to be used for the purchase of animals for sacrifice, as well as grain and drink offerings. They are also to transport vessels and anything else the temple requires, out of the king's treasury.
Artaxerxes commands the treasurers Beyond the River to provide everything Ezra requires, up to a certain amount (except for salt, which is to be given freely). According to the words of Artaxerxes, this is all done out of the fear of God: "Whatever is commanded by the God of heaven, let it be done with zeal for the house of the God of heaven, or wrath will come upon the realm of the king and his heirs." (Ezra 7.21-23) Furthermore, the Israelites will not be taxed based on what they withdraw.
Ezra is also commanded to appoint magistrates and judges for the Israelites in the province Beyond the River. The Israelites are still under the jurisdiction of the King, but they are at least able to govern themselves.
8.1-14
A list of families that returned with Ezra, numbered.
8.18-20
A list of the Levites that are sent for to accompany the traveling band to Jerusalem.
8.24-27
An account of the counting and weighing of the silver, gold, ad vessels brought on the journey. [Though this is not an outside source, it serves as an example of the creation of a source, a record of the amount and weight of objects brought from Babylon to Jerusalem.
8.35
An account of the offerings of those who came from captivity into Jerusalem.
10.18-44
A list of men who were found to have foreign wives, and who pledged to send away these wives and present guilt offerings to the Lord. Possibly the children are sent away as well, but this cannot be determined by the source text.
Hold your head high, everybody. The topic of next week's post: Shame.
Showing posts with label Documentary Hypothesis. Show all posts
Showing posts with label Documentary Hypothesis. Show all posts
Tuesday, March 8, 2011
Tuesday, November 23, 2010
1 Samuel 16-2 Samuel 1: From Saul to David
1 Samuel 16: David's Story in Contrast to Saul's
After Saul's kingship is revoked due to his disobedience of Samuel and general incompetence as a follower of the Lord, the search begins for a new king, one that will not make the Lord and Samuel so "sorry" about the whole affair of kingship. The man chosen is David, a young man that contrasts Saul in many ways. These contrasts are highlighted in our introduction to the boy, which parallels the proclaiming of Saul as king.
1 Samuel 9 informs us that Saul is "a handsome young man. There was not a man among the people of Israel more handsome than he; he stood head and shoulders above everyone else." The phrase "head and shoulders" is not a figure of speech; Saul is literally a tall man. Samuel's discovery of Saul is a highly public affair. All the tribes are brought together and are narrowed down by tribe, then family, then individual men. But when Saul is chosen by lot, he cannot be found. Samuel has to ask the Lord as to Saul's location; the future king is discovered among the baggage. Saul is off in his own world, a trait that will typify him throughout his reign.
When David is anointed king, he is chosen specifically from among the sons of Jesse, a Bethlehemite. This makes the anointing a private affair, lessening the publicity that might occur from the choice of a second king in so short a time.
Saul's choosing is contrasted (and undermined) in other ways as well. It is not the oldest son, Eliab, that will be anointed. Indeed, the Lord explains, "Do not look on his appearance or on the height of his stature. Eliab is like Saul: tall and handsome. The Lord warns against judging by appearances, advice that surely extends to Israel as a whole. Israel may not be the biggest nation, and is bereft of iron weapons.* Israel is an underdog group. Likewise, David is the youngest of Jesse's sons. In biblical times this was an unfavorable position, but frequently in the biblical narrative it is the youngest son that is favored.
Like Saul, David must be called for. However, he is called under less public circumstances, and his calling serves to defy the normative expectation that the youngest would not be chosen as king. David is young and ruddy and handsome, with beautiful eyes. Yet he is small, an underdog, the youngest son of a Bethlehemite. This mismatched sense will follow David throughout his narrative, perhaps most strikingly displayed in the tale of David and Goliath.
*[The bible informs us that the Philistines control the metalworking process]
Evidence of the Documentary Hypothesis in the Davidic Narrative
A strong piece of evidence supporting the multiple authorship of the bible comes in the Davidic narrative. 1 Samuel 16 has him anointed by Samuel, after which time he goes to play the lyre for Saul in order to relieve him of his evil spirits. However, for the rest of the narrative, David does not seem to have ever been anointed, indicating the tale of David may actually be comprised of two or more traditions. Twice he abstains from killing Saul because Saul is "the Lord's anointed." David's anointing would seemingly override this, so perhaps David in that version of the story was not anointed at that time. If the multiple authorship hypothesis is correct, one of these traditions would have David anointed upon his introduction, while the other would have him anointed after the death of Saul. Indeed, there are three anointing scenes, one before and two after Samuel's death. Perhaps the biblical author wanted David to be anointed by Samuel, and so that tradition was added to the other anointing that occurs in 2 Samuel 2 and 2 Samuel 5
1 Samuel 17: David and Goliath
The story of David and Goliath is a classic in the biblical canon - as well as in art:
[Thanks David Gaya at Wikipedia!]
The setting: The Israelites and the Philistines are battling. A huge Philistine warrior by the name of Goliath offers a challenge of hand-to-hand combat, him agaisnt an Israelite. The winner's people will rule over the loser's. It is a simple wager, but no Israelite takes it - until the young David shows up. David is no soldier; he is simply delivering food to his three brothers who are in combat. However, David takes up the challenge, perhaps tempted by the promise of Saul's daughter and tax-free living in Israel. The young shepherd eschews Saul's armor and sword for a simple sling and five stones. The rest, as they say, is historicized fiction.
The tale of David and Goliath reinforces the underdog mentality of David and the Israelites as a whole. David is physically smaller and younger than Goliath, but that means he is light and agile. He is confident in his boast to Goliath:
David invokes the Lord as divine warrior as champion of the Israelites. The Israelites only figure nominally into the battle, for "the battle is the Lord's." It was the Lord, David told Saul earlier, that saved him from lions and bears and allowed him to defeat them bare-handed. Battles are not won through sword and spear, but by what seem like fantastic actions resulting from trust in the Lord. David defeats Goliath with a mere stone. His boast that "the Lord does not save by sword and spear" has a peculiar resonance here, as 1 Samuel 13.19 informs the reader, "Now there was no smith to be found throughout all the land of Israel; for the Philistines said, 'The Hebrews must not make swords or spears for themselves.'" [It would therefore seem anachronistic that the Israelites "put X to the sword." But this is a matter for another time.] Only Saul and Jonathan have swords, and even these are not necessary to defeat the Philistines. Instead, Goliath is killed rather poetically by his own sword. Everything David promised is fulfilled, and the Philistines are defeated because of the Lord's actions.
Family Matters
There is an ever-so-brief period in which Saul is not jealous of David. It spans a whole five verses: 1 Samuel 18.1-5. In addition to Saul's adoration of his military prowess, Saul's son Jonathan develops an intense love for David, offering him many gifts to demonstrate his adoration. Jonathan's admiration of David saves the future king a number of times, while it simultaneously puts a wedge between Jonathan and his father.
Saul's jealousy stems from a legitimate source, though this source differs depending on what account we follow. If all the stories of David assume at this point that Saul's kingship has been revoked by Samuel, then Saul's fear might be that the new anointed has come. However, the Documentary Hypothesis allows the assumption that Saul's kingship was not revoked at all, and that the king is fending off a young upstart. It is a subtle difference, but knowing the reason could help us to better understand Saul's psychology.
Saul's jealousy is set off by a song that is sung as he and David return victorious from battle. The refrain haunts Saul, and he hears it repeated three times before his death:
In any case, David does not kill Saul when he gets the chance, an inaction that contrasts well with Saul's active pursuit of David. David refuses to kill the Lord's anointed - which would seem to indicate he has not yet been anointed himself.
Meanwhile, David is off making a name for himself, while Saul and his son Jonathan battle the enemies of Israel. Finally, the Philistines overcome the Israelites, and Saul, his armor bearer, and Jonathan all die. An injured Saul in fact kills himself rather than being killed by the Philistines - his armor bearer is refuses to kill him, and ultimately slays himself the same way.
David learns of Saul's death from an Amalekite that stumbles into his camp. carrying Saul's crown and armlet The news evokes genuine sorrow in David, and he demands to know the conditions. The Amalekite claims that Saul asked him to deliver his death blow because he is mortally wounded. Probably the Amalekite is lying, and probably stripped Saul of his jewelry before realizing it might be more valuable for him to give it to David. The tale prior to this one supports this idea. It does not even matter to David whether the man is lying or not - though he takes him at face value. In David's mind, the man has killed the Lord's anointed, and the punishment for that is death.
In the wake of this bloodbath David comes to power.
After Saul's kingship is revoked due to his disobedience of Samuel and general incompetence as a follower of the Lord, the search begins for a new king, one that will not make the Lord and Samuel so "sorry" about the whole affair of kingship. The man chosen is David, a young man that contrasts Saul in many ways. These contrasts are highlighted in our introduction to the boy, which parallels the proclaiming of Saul as king.
1 Samuel 9 informs us that Saul is "a handsome young man. There was not a man among the people of Israel more handsome than he; he stood head and shoulders above everyone else." The phrase "head and shoulders" is not a figure of speech; Saul is literally a tall man. Samuel's discovery of Saul is a highly public affair. All the tribes are brought together and are narrowed down by tribe, then family, then individual men. But when Saul is chosen by lot, he cannot be found. Samuel has to ask the Lord as to Saul's location; the future king is discovered among the baggage. Saul is off in his own world, a trait that will typify him throughout his reign.
When David is anointed king, he is chosen specifically from among the sons of Jesse, a Bethlehemite. This makes the anointing a private affair, lessening the publicity that might occur from the choice of a second king in so short a time.
Saul's choosing is contrasted (and undermined) in other ways as well. It is not the oldest son, Eliab, that will be anointed. Indeed, the Lord explains, "Do not look on his appearance or on the height of his stature. Eliab is like Saul: tall and handsome. The Lord warns against judging by appearances, advice that surely extends to Israel as a whole. Israel may not be the biggest nation, and is bereft of iron weapons.* Israel is an underdog group. Likewise, David is the youngest of Jesse's sons. In biblical times this was an unfavorable position, but frequently in the biblical narrative it is the youngest son that is favored.
Like Saul, David must be called for. However, he is called under less public circumstances, and his calling serves to defy the normative expectation that the youngest would not be chosen as king. David is young and ruddy and handsome, with beautiful eyes. Yet he is small, an underdog, the youngest son of a Bethlehemite. This mismatched sense will follow David throughout his narrative, perhaps most strikingly displayed in the tale of David and Goliath.
*[The bible informs us that the Philistines control the metalworking process]
Evidence of the Documentary Hypothesis in the Davidic Narrative
A strong piece of evidence supporting the multiple authorship of the bible comes in the Davidic narrative. 1 Samuel 16 has him anointed by Samuel, after which time he goes to play the lyre for Saul in order to relieve him of his evil spirits. However, for the rest of the narrative, David does not seem to have ever been anointed, indicating the tale of David may actually be comprised of two or more traditions. Twice he abstains from killing Saul because Saul is "the Lord's anointed." David's anointing would seemingly override this, so perhaps David in that version of the story was not anointed at that time. If the multiple authorship hypothesis is correct, one of these traditions would have David anointed upon his introduction, while the other would have him anointed after the death of Saul. Indeed, there are three anointing scenes, one before and two after Samuel's death. Perhaps the biblical author wanted David to be anointed by Samuel, and so that tradition was added to the other anointing that occurs in 2 Samuel 2 and 2 Samuel 5
1 Samuel 17: David and Goliath
The story of David and Goliath is a classic in the biblical canon - as well as in art:
[Thanks David Gaya at Wikipedia!]
The setting: The Israelites and the Philistines are battling. A huge Philistine warrior by the name of Goliath offers a challenge of hand-to-hand combat, him agaisnt an Israelite. The winner's people will rule over the loser's. It is a simple wager, but no Israelite takes it - until the young David shows up. David is no soldier; he is simply delivering food to his three brothers who are in combat. However, David takes up the challenge, perhaps tempted by the promise of Saul's daughter and tax-free living in Israel. The young shepherd eschews Saul's armor and sword for a simple sling and five stones. The rest, as they say, is historicized fiction.
The tale of David and Goliath reinforces the underdog mentality of David and the Israelites as a whole. David is physically smaller and younger than Goliath, but that means he is light and agile. He is confident in his boast to Goliath:
"You come to me with sword and spear and javelin, but I come to you in the name of the Lord of hosts, the God of the armies of Israel, whom you have defiled. This very day the Lord will deliver you into my hand, and I will strike you down and cut off your head;"David then turns Goliath's promise back on him:
"and I will give the dead bodies of the Philistine army this very day to the birds of the air and to the wild animals of the earth, so that all the earth may know that there is a God in Israel, and that all this assembly may know that the Lord does not save by sword and spear; for the battle is the Lord's and he will give you into our hand."
David invokes the Lord as divine warrior as champion of the Israelites. The Israelites only figure nominally into the battle, for "the battle is the Lord's." It was the Lord, David told Saul earlier, that saved him from lions and bears and allowed him to defeat them bare-handed. Battles are not won through sword and spear, but by what seem like fantastic actions resulting from trust in the Lord. David defeats Goliath with a mere stone. His boast that "the Lord does not save by sword and spear" has a peculiar resonance here, as 1 Samuel 13.19 informs the reader, "Now there was no smith to be found throughout all the land of Israel; for the Philistines said, 'The Hebrews must not make swords or spears for themselves.'" [It would therefore seem anachronistic that the Israelites "put X to the sword." But this is a matter for another time.] Only Saul and Jonathan have swords, and even these are not necessary to defeat the Philistines. Instead, Goliath is killed rather poetically by his own sword. Everything David promised is fulfilled, and the Philistines are defeated because of the Lord's actions.
Family Matters
There is an ever-so-brief period in which Saul is not jealous of David. It spans a whole five verses: 1 Samuel 18.1-5. In addition to Saul's adoration of his military prowess, Saul's son Jonathan develops an intense love for David, offering him many gifts to demonstrate his adoration. Jonathan's admiration of David saves the future king a number of times, while it simultaneously puts a wedge between Jonathan and his father.
Saul's jealousy stems from a legitimate source, though this source differs depending on what account we follow. If all the stories of David assume at this point that Saul's kingship has been revoked by Samuel, then Saul's fear might be that the new anointed has come. However, the Documentary Hypothesis allows the assumption that Saul's kingship was not revoked at all, and that the king is fending off a young upstart. It is a subtle difference, but knowing the reason could help us to better understand Saul's psychology.
Saul's jealousy is set off by a song that is sung as he and David return victorious from battle. The refrain haunts Saul, and he hears it repeated three times before his death:
"Saul has killed his thousands,With this jealousy as a basis, the rest of the narrative sees Saul hunting down David, and even when Saul concedes David's greatness and promises to stop hunting him, he resumes the hunt within a chapter. In classic laconic style we are never told the reason Saul's pursuit resumes. This fact is taken for granted, but again, understanding the reason would give us a greater insight into Saul's psychology. Multiple authorship makes it seem as though Saul reneges on his promise a number of times. And while this may have always been the intention of the story, there is a small chance that perhaps it was not.
and David his ten thousands."
(1 Sam. 18.7, 21.11, 29.5)
In any case, David does not kill Saul when he gets the chance, an inaction that contrasts well with Saul's active pursuit of David. David refuses to kill the Lord's anointed - which would seem to indicate he has not yet been anointed himself.
Meanwhile, David is off making a name for himself, while Saul and his son Jonathan battle the enemies of Israel. Finally, the Philistines overcome the Israelites, and Saul, his armor bearer, and Jonathan all die. An injured Saul in fact kills himself rather than being killed by the Philistines - his armor bearer is refuses to kill him, and ultimately slays himself the same way.
David learns of Saul's death from an Amalekite that stumbles into his camp. carrying Saul's crown and armlet The news evokes genuine sorrow in David, and he demands to know the conditions. The Amalekite claims that Saul asked him to deliver his death blow because he is mortally wounded. Probably the Amalekite is lying, and probably stripped Saul of his jewelry before realizing it might be more valuable for him to give it to David. The tale prior to this one supports this idea. It does not even matter to David whether the man is lying or not - though he takes him at face value. In David's mind, the man has killed the Lord's anointed, and the punishment for that is death.
In the wake of this bloodbath David comes to power.
Monday, October 4, 2010
Joshua 13-19: Dividing Canaan
Joshua 13: The Parts of Canaan Still Unconquered / The Territory East of the Jordan / The Territory of Reuben / The Territory of Gad / The Territory of the Half-Tribe of Manasseh (East)
Joshua 14: The Distribution of Territory West of the Jordan / Hebron Allotted to Caleb
Joshua 15: The Territory of Judah / The Towns of Judh
Joshua 16: The Territory of Ephraim
Joshua 17: The Other Half-tribe of Manasseh (West) / The Tribe of Joseph Protests
Joshua 18:The Territories of the Remaining Tribes / The Territory of Benjamin
Joshua 19:The Territory of Simeon / The Territory of Zebulun / The Territory of Issachar / The Territory of Asher / The Territory of Naphtali / The Territory of Dan / Joshua's Inheritance
Hoo boy. Joshua has to assign the Israelites their land. This could take a while.
The Parts of Canaan Still Unconquered: Joshua 13.1-7
Joshua is an old man when the Lord comes to him and commands him to distribute the land to the Israelites. A lot of the territory is still unconquered, but God commands Joshua at this time only to divide the land among the remaining nine tribes and the half-tribe of Manasseh*. The Lord will take care of driving out Israel's enemies.
*[Reuben and Gad will occupy the land East of the Jordan. Note that Manasseh is not to reside East of the Jordan in this version.]
This passage allows the biblical author to give a preview of the land still to be conquered. It is not done through narration, but using God as a mouthpiece. Let's call this characterization of God "God as Guide. In the characterization, God leads the people to do whatever they need to do by speaking it. After it is spoken, the people do it. It is a blunt sort of foreshadowing (by today's standards, at least) that allows the author to give an outline of the story to come before the story is fleshed out. God as guide has appeared many times before thus far, especially in the story of the escape from Egypt, in which the Lord commanded Moses to complete certain tasks which Moses then completed.
The Territory East of the Jordan: Joshua 13.8-14
The territory Moses gave to the Reubenites, Gadites, and half-tribe of Manasseh is described in detail.* The Israelites have driven out many peoples - and the bible at points says that the entire land has been conquered. However, the author here informs us that the Israelites failed to conquer the Geshurites and Maacathites. This serves an etiological purpose. An editorial note tells us that "Geshur and Maacath live within Israel to this day."
*[In this version, Manasseh will join Reuben and Gad East of the Jordan. The difference between the two versions of the story can be accounted for under the theory of multiple authorship (Documentary Hypothesis).]
A brief editorial note reminds us that the Levites receive no inheritance to the Lord: "The offerings by fire to the Lord God of Israel are their inheritance" (Josh. 13.14).
What follows are three sections detailing the specific land each of the three tribes east of the Jordan was assigned by Moses.
The Territory of Reuben: Joshua 13.15-23
The territory Moses gave to the Reubenites is described in detail.
The Territory of Gad: Joshua 13.24-28
The territory Moses gave to the Gadites is described in detail.
The Territory of the Half-Tribe of Manasseh (East): Joshua 13.29-33
The territory Moses gave to the Manassites is described in detail. Again a brief editorial note reminds us that the Levites receive no inheritance to the Lord.
The Distribution of Territory West of the Jordan: Joshua 14.1-5
The distribution of territory in Canaan, the promised land, is described. This land is distributed by lot by Joshua and the head priest Eleazar. Again the Levite situation is described.
Hebron Allotted to Caleb: Joshua 14.6-15
The people of Judah come before Joshua and Caleb recounts for him his tale of spying out the land and the reward of land that Moses swore to him for being an exceptionally hones man and following the Lord. Forty-five years after that incident, Caleb is now 85, his strength not diminished one bit.
Joshua blesses Caleb and gives him Hebron in fulfillment of Moses' promise.
This section is an exception to the envelope structure [or sandwich structure] rule. It ends with the phrase, "And the land had rest from war," which was the declaration that closed chapter 11. These two parallel phrases would normally indicate an enveloped story, but the text that is enveloped - a hodgepodge of archival material - is not cohesive. In this instance the intent of the author seems to be to set aside the narrative, but there is intervening material in the way. In addition, similar material follows, so the purpose of the envelope structure, if this was the author's intention at all, becomes even more confusing. I'm going to call this an exception to the envelope structure rule.
The Territory of Judah: Joshua 15.1-12
The boundaries of the land given to the descendants of Judah are given. In contrast to previous descriptions of territory, it is the boundaries of the land that are stressed, indicating this is probably from a different source.
Caleb Occupies His Portion: Joshua 15.13-19
In accordance with the Lord's command to Joshua, caleb is awarded Hebron, part of the land of Judah. Ever the warrior in this story, Caleb drives out the inhabitants of that land himself. He then offers his daughter Achsah to whoever attacks and takes Kiriath-sepher. Othniel, Caleb's nephew, takes it and receives his prize.
Achsah is a strong woman character - something of a rarity in biblical literature. Her importance is immediately recognizable by the fact that she is named. She is a victim to the sex-marriage economy in the sense that she is married off in exchange for a service. However, Achsah then attempts to undermine the sex-marriage economy by telling her husband to ask for a field as the dowry. Then the narrator shows her as she dismounts from her donkey and takes the Sex-marriage economy into her own hands as she asks her father instead for a present of springs as a well. In an area dry as the Negeb, this is a shrewd business move. She receives her present, thereby usurping her husband's right to a dowry and undermining the sex-marriage economy as a whole.
The Towns of Judah: Joshua 15.20-63
The tremendous inheritance of Judah is laid out in 43 verses: eleven districts in the south of the land. But for all the glory of their land, the people of Judah are unable to drive out the Jebusites, the inhabitants of Jerusalem. The etiological passage reads, "So the Jebusites live with the people of Judah in Jerusalem to this day.
The Territory Ephraim: Joshua 16.1-10
The territory of the Ephraimites is described, with an emphasis on the boundaries.
The Other Half-Tribe of Manasseh (West): Joshua 17.1-13
Well this is strange. While the land is being distributed, Zelophehad son of Hepher son of Gilead son of Machir son of Manasseh comes to Joshua and Eleazar to tell then that he has no sons - could they please receive his portion so that the land would stay in his name? His daughter's names are Mahlah, Noah, Hoglah, Milcah, and Tirzah. Does that sound familiar - because it is. This happens to be a duplicate story of Numbers 27.1-11, complete with all the same names. However, the situation has now changed somewhat. In the Joshua story, Zelophehad asks Joshua directly. In the Numbers story, Zelophehad's daughters ask on their father's behalf. The difference is all (again) in the strength of the female characters. It is remarkable that these characters are named, but in the Numbers story they are even stronger than they appear here because they speak on behalf of their father. The result is the same, however. The daughters still receive the land.
The Tribe of Joseph Protests: Joshua 17.14-18
The tribe of Joseph protests that it only received one lot, though they have many people. Joshua tells them to clear an area in the forest in the land of the Perizzites and Rephaim, if the hill country is not enough. The tribe then complains about the Canaanites and their chariots of iron. Joshua reassures them that they will conquer the Canaanites.
The Territories of the Remaining Tribes: Joshua 18.1-10
The congregation takes a break at Shiloh. Seven tribes have yet to receive their inheritance, so much land is yet to be settled. Joshua therefore sends out three men from every tribe to chart the remaining land and divide it into seven pieces. Joshua then casts lots for the pieces.
The Territory of Benjamin: Joshua 18.11-28
The tribe of Benjamin is granted its territory.
The Territory of Simeon: Joshua 19.1-9
The tribe of Simeon is granted its territory - some of it is in the land of Judah, as that tribe could not fill its inherited land on its own.
The Territory of Zebulun: Joshua 19.10-16
The tribe of Zebulun is granted its territory.
The Territory of Issachar: Joshua 19.17-23
The tribe of Issachar is granted its territory.
The Territory of Asher: Joshua 19.24-31
The tribe of Asher is granted its territory.
The Territory of Naphtali: Joshua 19.32-39
The tribe of Naphtali is granted its territory.
The Territory of Dan: Joshua 19.40-48
The tribe of Dan is granted its territory.
Joshua's Inheritance: Joshua 19.49-51
The land completely divided,m the Israelites give Joshua an inheritance: Timnath-serath in the hill country of Ephraim. He rebuilds the town and settles it.
The dividing of the land is complete.
Joshua 14: The Distribution of Territory West of the Jordan / Hebron Allotted to Caleb
Joshua 15: The Territory of Judah / The Towns of Judh
Joshua 16: The Territory of Ephraim
Joshua 17: The Other Half-tribe of Manasseh (West) / The Tribe of Joseph Protests
Joshua 18:The Territories of the Remaining Tribes / The Territory of Benjamin
Joshua 19:The Territory of Simeon / The Territory of Zebulun / The Territory of Issachar / The Territory of Asher / The Territory of Naphtali / The Territory of Dan / Joshua's Inheritance
Hoo boy. Joshua has to assign the Israelites their land. This could take a while.
The Parts of Canaan Still Unconquered: Joshua 13.1-7
Joshua is an old man when the Lord comes to him and commands him to distribute the land to the Israelites. A lot of the territory is still unconquered, but God commands Joshua at this time only to divide the land among the remaining nine tribes and the half-tribe of Manasseh*. The Lord will take care of driving out Israel's enemies.
*[Reuben and Gad will occupy the land East of the Jordan. Note that Manasseh is not to reside East of the Jordan in this version.]
This passage allows the biblical author to give a preview of the land still to be conquered. It is not done through narration, but using God as a mouthpiece. Let's call this characterization of God "God as Guide. In the characterization, God leads the people to do whatever they need to do by speaking it. After it is spoken, the people do it. It is a blunt sort of foreshadowing (by today's standards, at least) that allows the author to give an outline of the story to come before the story is fleshed out. God as guide has appeared many times before thus far, especially in the story of the escape from Egypt, in which the Lord commanded Moses to complete certain tasks which Moses then completed.
The Territory East of the Jordan: Joshua 13.8-14
The territory Moses gave to the Reubenites, Gadites, and half-tribe of Manasseh is described in detail.* The Israelites have driven out many peoples - and the bible at points says that the entire land has been conquered. However, the author here informs us that the Israelites failed to conquer the Geshurites and Maacathites. This serves an etiological purpose. An editorial note tells us that "Geshur and Maacath live within Israel to this day."
*[In this version, Manasseh will join Reuben and Gad East of the Jordan. The difference between the two versions of the story can be accounted for under the theory of multiple authorship (Documentary Hypothesis).]
A brief editorial note reminds us that the Levites receive no inheritance to the Lord: "The offerings by fire to the Lord God of Israel are their inheritance" (Josh. 13.14).
What follows are three sections detailing the specific land each of the three tribes east of the Jordan was assigned by Moses.
The Territory of Reuben: Joshua 13.15-23
The territory Moses gave to the Reubenites is described in detail.
The Territory of Gad: Joshua 13.24-28
The territory Moses gave to the Gadites is described in detail.
The Territory of the Half-Tribe of Manasseh (East): Joshua 13.29-33
The territory Moses gave to the Manassites is described in detail. Again a brief editorial note reminds us that the Levites receive no inheritance to the Lord.
The Distribution of Territory West of the Jordan: Joshua 14.1-5
The distribution of territory in Canaan, the promised land, is described. This land is distributed by lot by Joshua and the head priest Eleazar. Again the Levite situation is described.
Hebron Allotted to Caleb: Joshua 14.6-15
The people of Judah come before Joshua and Caleb recounts for him his tale of spying out the land and the reward of land that Moses swore to him for being an exceptionally hones man and following the Lord. Forty-five years after that incident, Caleb is now 85, his strength not diminished one bit.
Joshua blesses Caleb and gives him Hebron in fulfillment of Moses' promise.
This section is an exception to the envelope structure [or sandwich structure] rule. It ends with the phrase, "And the land had rest from war," which was the declaration that closed chapter 11. These two parallel phrases would normally indicate an enveloped story, but the text that is enveloped - a hodgepodge of archival material - is not cohesive. In this instance the intent of the author seems to be to set aside the narrative, but there is intervening material in the way. In addition, similar material follows, so the purpose of the envelope structure, if this was the author's intention at all, becomes even more confusing. I'm going to call this an exception to the envelope structure rule.
The Territory of Judah: Joshua 15.1-12
The boundaries of the land given to the descendants of Judah are given. In contrast to previous descriptions of territory, it is the boundaries of the land that are stressed, indicating this is probably from a different source.
Caleb Occupies His Portion: Joshua 15.13-19
In accordance with the Lord's command to Joshua, caleb is awarded Hebron, part of the land of Judah. Ever the warrior in this story, Caleb drives out the inhabitants of that land himself. He then offers his daughter Achsah to whoever attacks and takes Kiriath-sepher. Othniel, Caleb's nephew, takes it and receives his prize.
Achsah is a strong woman character - something of a rarity in biblical literature. Her importance is immediately recognizable by the fact that she is named. She is a victim to the sex-marriage economy in the sense that she is married off in exchange for a service. However, Achsah then attempts to undermine the sex-marriage economy by telling her husband to ask for a field as the dowry. Then the narrator shows her as she dismounts from her donkey and takes the Sex-marriage economy into her own hands as she asks her father instead for a present of springs as a well. In an area dry as the Negeb, this is a shrewd business move. She receives her present, thereby usurping her husband's right to a dowry and undermining the sex-marriage economy as a whole.
The Towns of Judah: Joshua 15.20-63
The tremendous inheritance of Judah is laid out in 43 verses: eleven districts in the south of the land. But for all the glory of their land, the people of Judah are unable to drive out the Jebusites, the inhabitants of Jerusalem. The etiological passage reads, "So the Jebusites live with the people of Judah in Jerusalem to this day.
The Territory Ephraim: Joshua 16.1-10
The territory of the Ephraimites is described, with an emphasis on the boundaries.
The Other Half-Tribe of Manasseh (West): Joshua 17.1-13
Well this is strange. While the land is being distributed, Zelophehad son of Hepher son of Gilead son of Machir son of Manasseh comes to Joshua and Eleazar to tell then that he has no sons - could they please receive his portion so that the land would stay in his name? His daughter's names are Mahlah, Noah, Hoglah, Milcah, and Tirzah. Does that sound familiar - because it is. This happens to be a duplicate story of Numbers 27.1-11, complete with all the same names. However, the situation has now changed somewhat. In the Joshua story, Zelophehad asks Joshua directly. In the Numbers story, Zelophehad's daughters ask on their father's behalf. The difference is all (again) in the strength of the female characters. It is remarkable that these characters are named, but in the Numbers story they are even stronger than they appear here because they speak on behalf of their father. The result is the same, however. The daughters still receive the land.
The Tribe of Joseph Protests: Joshua 17.14-18
The tribe of Joseph protests that it only received one lot, though they have many people. Joshua tells them to clear an area in the forest in the land of the Perizzites and Rephaim, if the hill country is not enough. The tribe then complains about the Canaanites and their chariots of iron. Joshua reassures them that they will conquer the Canaanites.
The Territories of the Remaining Tribes: Joshua 18.1-10
The congregation takes a break at Shiloh. Seven tribes have yet to receive their inheritance, so much land is yet to be settled. Joshua therefore sends out three men from every tribe to chart the remaining land and divide it into seven pieces. Joshua then casts lots for the pieces.
The Territory of Benjamin: Joshua 18.11-28
The tribe of Benjamin is granted its territory.
The Territory of Simeon: Joshua 19.1-9
The tribe of Simeon is granted its territory - some of it is in the land of Judah, as that tribe could not fill its inherited land on its own.
The Territory of Zebulun: Joshua 19.10-16
The tribe of Zebulun is granted its territory.
The Territory of Issachar: Joshua 19.17-23
The tribe of Issachar is granted its territory.
The Territory of Asher: Joshua 19.24-31
The tribe of Asher is granted its territory.
The Territory of Naphtali: Joshua 19.32-39
The tribe of Naphtali is granted its territory.
The Territory of Dan: Joshua 19.40-48
The tribe of Dan is granted its territory.
Joshua's Inheritance: Joshua 19.49-51
The land completely divided,m the Israelites give Joshua an inheritance: Timnath-serath in the hill country of Ephraim. He rebuilds the town and settles it.
The dividing of the land is complete.
Tuesday, September 7, 2010
Deuteronomy 8: The history of the future
Deuteronomy 8: A Warning Not to Forget God in Prosperity
Writers right for an audience, right? Literature of any kind - prose, poetry, journalism, instruction manuals - serves a purpose, whether this is to entertain, inform, instruct, etc. Without an audience to read and interpret, literature is simply words on a page (or screen, as is increasingly the case). It would be safe to say that the biblical author in Deuteronomy is trying to tell his audience something about its relationship with God. In fact, that has been the theme of the first seven chapters, and the message continues into and beyond today's reading.
Deuteronomy so far:
History 1 and 2
Obedience
The Ten Commandments
More Obedience
A Chosen People
These readings are all concerned with Israel's relationship with God. There are many warnings that link disobeying God with God abandoning or actively working against Israel. The messages are prophetic, but not in the sense that we usually think of prophecy. One misconception about biblical prophecy is that it is making predictions about events that will happen long into the future. This is not the case. Biblical prophecy is not like Nostradamus predicting the assassination of John F. Kennedy. Rather, the biblical prophet takes a look at the world around him and warns that something bad will happen, usually because it will: you will be invaded, you will be destroyed, etc. Educated guesses are made based on the political circumstances of the time. What distinguishes the prophet's writing is that this political upheaval is linked to God's will. This is why dialectical tensions are so important in the bible. Dialectical tensions create a framework to which prophecy may be applied. The prophet attaches religious meaning to political events. Instead of simply saying, "the enemy will soon be at your gates because your enemy has been conquering everyone in sight," prophecy says, "the enemy will soon be at your gates because you disobeyed the Lord.
If a prophet warns that disobedience results in tragedy, whenever tragedy occurs it is reckoned that the cause is disobedience. These things are easy to prove in hindsight. And that is what we are working through right now. This section, and the prophetic sections ahead, reveal the history of the future. That is, it is a story of the past created by contemporary writers to explain the current situation in terms of fulfillment of the covenant.
Here are the words of the Lord, as delivered by Moses to the people of Israel as they wait to enter the promised land.
A Warning Not to Forget God in Prosperity: Deuteronomy 8
Remember learning about similes and metaphors in elementary school? The biblical author uses a number of these in an attempt to describe the relationship between God and his chosen people.
The Lord claims that the reason the people wandered forty years in the wilderness was so that he could humble them to test whether they trusted in the Lord: "Know then in your heart that as a parent disciplines a child so the Lord your god disciplines you" (Deut. 8.5). He made them hungry before giving them manna - a food never before eaten by the Israelites and their ancestors. The manna has a metaphorical quality for the Lord, given to the Israelites "in order to make you understand that one does not live by bread alone, but by every word that comes out of the mouth of the Lord" (Deut. 8.3). In other words, obedience to the Lord's commandments is as important as (if not more than) physical food. It was with God's protection that they survived the journey through the wilderness.
The Lord promises a land of bountiful food sources, with precious metals and abundant water sources. The people will bless the Lord for what they have ben given.
But the people must not grow complacent. They must always recognize the God that has chosen them as his people. They must remember that the power and wealth they have has only been attained with the blessing of God. If the Israelites abandon YHWH for other gods, they will perish like the people they are about to drive out of the promised land.
So What?
The promised land was set aside by God for the Israelites as far back as the time of Abraham. The biblical author asserts that it is rightfully theirs, but only if they worship YHWH exclusively. Therefore, if the people are ever expelled from the promised land, which will happen by the time this text was written, it is because they did not keep God's commandments. This is the history of the future at work.]
Writers right for an audience, right? Literature of any kind - prose, poetry, journalism, instruction manuals - serves a purpose, whether this is to entertain, inform, instruct, etc. Without an audience to read and interpret, literature is simply words on a page (or screen, as is increasingly the case). It would be safe to say that the biblical author in Deuteronomy is trying to tell his audience something about its relationship with God. In fact, that has been the theme of the first seven chapters, and the message continues into and beyond today's reading.
Deuteronomy so far:
History 1 and 2
Obedience
The Ten Commandments
More Obedience
A Chosen People
These readings are all concerned with Israel's relationship with God. There are many warnings that link disobeying God with God abandoning or actively working against Israel. The messages are prophetic, but not in the sense that we usually think of prophecy. One misconception about biblical prophecy is that it is making predictions about events that will happen long into the future. This is not the case. Biblical prophecy is not like Nostradamus predicting the assassination of John F. Kennedy. Rather, the biblical prophet takes a look at the world around him and warns that something bad will happen, usually because it will: you will be invaded, you will be destroyed, etc. Educated guesses are made based on the political circumstances of the time. What distinguishes the prophet's writing is that this political upheaval is linked to God's will. This is why dialectical tensions are so important in the bible. Dialectical tensions create a framework to which prophecy may be applied. The prophet attaches religious meaning to political events. Instead of simply saying, "the enemy will soon be at your gates because your enemy has been conquering everyone in sight," prophecy says, "the enemy will soon be at your gates because you disobeyed the Lord.
If a prophet warns that disobedience results in tragedy, whenever tragedy occurs it is reckoned that the cause is disobedience. These things are easy to prove in hindsight. And that is what we are working through right now. This section, and the prophetic sections ahead, reveal the history of the future. That is, it is a story of the past created by contemporary writers to explain the current situation in terms of fulfillment of the covenant.
Here are the words of the Lord, as delivered by Moses to the people of Israel as they wait to enter the promised land.
A Warning Not to Forget God in Prosperity: Deuteronomy 8
Remember learning about similes and metaphors in elementary school? The biblical author uses a number of these in an attempt to describe the relationship between God and his chosen people.
The Lord claims that the reason the people wandered forty years in the wilderness was so that he could humble them to test whether they trusted in the Lord: "Know then in your heart that as a parent disciplines a child so the Lord your god disciplines you" (Deut. 8.5). He made them hungry before giving them manna - a food never before eaten by the Israelites and their ancestors. The manna has a metaphorical quality for the Lord, given to the Israelites "in order to make you understand that one does not live by bread alone, but by every word that comes out of the mouth of the Lord" (Deut. 8.3). In other words, obedience to the Lord's commandments is as important as (if not more than) physical food. It was with God's protection that they survived the journey through the wilderness.
The Lord promises a land of bountiful food sources, with precious metals and abundant water sources. The people will bless the Lord for what they have ben given.
But the people must not grow complacent. They must always recognize the God that has chosen them as his people. They must remember that the power and wealth they have has only been attained with the blessing of God. If the Israelites abandon YHWH for other gods, they will perish like the people they are about to drive out of the promised land.
So What?
The promised land was set aside by God for the Israelites as far back as the time of Abraham. The biblical author asserts that it is rightfully theirs, but only if they worship YHWH exclusively. Therefore, if the people are ever expelled from the promised land, which will happen by the time this text was written, it is because they did not keep God's commandments. This is the history of the future at work.]
Sunday, August 22, 2010
Numbers 25: No other gods before me...
Numbers 25: Worship of Baal of Peor
The narrative focus returns to the Israelites who are not exactly living up to God's expectations. Having put their trust in God, the Israelites were able to defeat King Arad, King Sihon, and King Og. And the section immediately before this showed God as extremely protective of his people, who are blessed three times by the Moabite Balaam.
Worship of Baal of Peor: Numbers 25
While at Shittim, the Israelite men have sexual relations with the Moabite women. This leads to the Moabite women inviting the men home to dinner and to sacrifice to their gods, namely the high God, Baal. The Lord is not happy about this, and commands Moses, "Take all the chiefs of the people, and impale them in the sun before the Lord, in order that the fierce anger of the Lord may turn away from Israel" (Num. 25.4). The Lord's anger is retributive, but at least the Lord does not threaten to abandon Israel, as the Lord has done before. No, the Lord only wants a sort of human sacrifice - not in the traditional sense of sacrifice, but more in the Christian Jesus-died-that-we-may-live sense, taking "living" to be life on earth. Moses tells the judges of Israel to kill any of their people that have "yoked themselves to the Baal of Peor."
Just then an Israelite comes by and leads a Midianite woman into his tent, right in front of Moses and the congregation of the Israelites. One can sense the ironic tension of the situation. Here is a man that has not heard the command walking to his own death hand in hand with the Midianite woman. The entire congregation comprehends the horror of what is about to take place - and the horror that awaits them too.
Phinehas son of Eleazar, son of Aaron sees this and sneaks off. He takes a spear and follows the Israelite man and Midianite woman into the tent. He kills the two in flagrante delicto, as evidenced by the fact that the spear pierces both the Israelite and the woman through the belly.
But here we seem to have a mixing of traditions, because the writer informs us that the killing of the man and woman stops that plague that spreads throughout Israel. No plague was threatened before, but now clearly the Israelites have been afflicted - 24,000 die from it.
It was Phinehas' swift action that saved the Israelites from God's wrath. The Lord speaks to Moses and compliments Phinehas on "manifesting such zeal" so as to turn God's anger away from the Israelites. Therefore Aaron's family is granted God's "covenant of peace," a covenant of "perpetual priesthood" awarded for Phinehas' zealous defense of God that was so great it atoned for all of Israel.
The biblical author then gives the names of the slain lovers. The man is Zimri son of Salu, head of the Simeonites. The woman is Cozbi daughter of Zur, the head of a Midianite clan. Both were important members of their nations, which in hindsight makes their deaths all the more meaningful. It was not just any Israelite, but the head of an ancestral house, that sullied himself with the Midianite woman. Corruption extends to the leadership of Israel. Also, the death of Cozbi instigates something of a blood feud between the Israelites and the Midianites. Only it is the Israelites who are on the offensive, with the justification that Cozbi was a corruptive force.
Israel has done a lot to upset the Lord while in the wilderness, and many have suffered God's wrath. But as we shall see tomorrow, the new generation that enters the promised land will have nearly as many people as the generation that fled Egypt.
The narrative focus returns to the Israelites who are not exactly living up to God's expectations. Having put their trust in God, the Israelites were able to defeat King Arad, King Sihon, and King Og. And the section immediately before this showed God as extremely protective of his people, who are blessed three times by the Moabite Balaam.
Worship of Baal of Peor: Numbers 25
While at Shittim, the Israelite men have sexual relations with the Moabite women. This leads to the Moabite women inviting the men home to dinner and to sacrifice to their gods, namely the high God, Baal. The Lord is not happy about this, and commands Moses, "Take all the chiefs of the people, and impale them in the sun before the Lord, in order that the fierce anger of the Lord may turn away from Israel" (Num. 25.4). The Lord's anger is retributive, but at least the Lord does not threaten to abandon Israel, as the Lord has done before. No, the Lord only wants a sort of human sacrifice - not in the traditional sense of sacrifice, but more in the Christian Jesus-died-that-we-may-live sense, taking "living" to be life on earth. Moses tells the judges of Israel to kill any of their people that have "yoked themselves to the Baal of Peor."
Just then an Israelite comes by and leads a Midianite woman into his tent, right in front of Moses and the congregation of the Israelites. One can sense the ironic tension of the situation. Here is a man that has not heard the command walking to his own death hand in hand with the Midianite woman. The entire congregation comprehends the horror of what is about to take place - and the horror that awaits them too.
Phinehas son of Eleazar, son of Aaron sees this and sneaks off. He takes a spear and follows the Israelite man and Midianite woman into the tent. He kills the two in flagrante delicto, as evidenced by the fact that the spear pierces both the Israelite and the woman through the belly.
[Click to enlarge]
 |
| Years from now, when all the locations of CSI are exhausted, the producers will be forced to go back in time. |
It was Phinehas' swift action that saved the Israelites from God's wrath. The Lord speaks to Moses and compliments Phinehas on "manifesting such zeal" so as to turn God's anger away from the Israelites. Therefore Aaron's family is granted God's "covenant of peace," a covenant of "perpetual priesthood" awarded for Phinehas' zealous defense of God that was so great it atoned for all of Israel.
The biblical author then gives the names of the slain lovers. The man is Zimri son of Salu, head of the Simeonites. The woman is Cozbi daughter of Zur, the head of a Midianite clan. Both were important members of their nations, which in hindsight makes their deaths all the more meaningful. It was not just any Israelite, but the head of an ancestral house, that sullied himself with the Midianite woman. Corruption extends to the leadership of Israel. Also, the death of Cozbi instigates something of a blood feud between the Israelites and the Midianites. Only it is the Israelites who are on the offensive, with the justification that Cozbi was a corruptive force.
Israel has done a lot to upset the Lord while in the wilderness, and many have suffered God's wrath. But as we shall see tomorrow, the new generation that enters the promised land will have nearly as many people as the generation that fled Egypt.
Friday, August 6, 2010
Numbers 1-2
The First Census of Israel / The Order of Encampment and Marching
The First Census of Israel: Numbers 1
It is the first day of the second month of the second year since the Israelites fled Egypt, and God tells Moses to finally take the census God commanded in Exodus. The census counts males that are twenty years old and older - everyone in Israel who is able to go to war.
And, because numbers likes numbers and lists, what follows is a list of helpers from each tribe, eac man the head of his ancestral house:
What follows is another list, this one of all twelve tribes being accounted for. There are twelve entries, and each entry follows the same pattern:
1. Reuben - 46,500
2. Simeon - 59,300
3. Gad - 45,650
4. Judah - 74,600
5. Issachar - 54,400
6. Zebulun - 57,400
7. Ephraim (son of Joseph) - 40,500
8. Manasseh (son of Joseph) - 32,200
9. Benjamin - 35,400
10. Dan - 62,700
11. Asher - 41,500
12. Naphtali - 53,400
The literary purpose of the census is to demonstrate Israel's might by revealing the size of the army that will fight in order to enter the promised land. Note that the census covers those going to war, imbuing this chapter from the beginning with overtones of combat. Ancient censuses, of course, served to determine how many were able to fight. But the placement of the census at the beginning of the book sets the stage for the rest of the book. In total, 603,550 of the Israelites will be able to fight:
The Order of Encampment and Marching: Numbers 2
The Israelites are to camp by tribe, each camp facing the tent of meeting. There shall be three tribes in each cardinal direction, extending out in a cross (no Christian imagery intended) from the tabernacle. Check out the symmetry employed by the biblical author. Two adjacent sides are listed, then the center, then the remaining two adjacent sides:
To the east, listed from the outside going inward to the tent, are Judah, Issachar, and Zebulun.
To the south, listed from the outside going inward to the tent, are Reuben, Simeon, and Gad.
In the center is the tent of meeting, surrounded by the Levites.
To the west, listed from the outside going inward to the tent, are Ephraim, Manasseh, Benjamin.
To the north, listed from the outside going inward to the tent, are Dan, Asher, and Naphtali.
Each side is designated a "regimental encampment" and assigned the name of the outermost tribe. [The eastward camp is Judah, the southward is Reuben, the westward is Ephraim, the northward is Dan.] When marching, the camps shall leave in the following order: Judah, Reuben, Ephraim, Dan. The Levites shall march with the camp in whose quadrant they camped.
The militaristic diction comes to the fore in Numbers 2, and I think it is not just the prejudice of the translators that makes it so. The following phrases caught my attention: regiments, regimental encampments, ensigns (the signs of the tribes), march, set out. The biblical author seems to be setting the Israelites up for battle.
It is clear that the biblical author favored the tribe of Judah, and was probably himself (/themselves) from the kingdom of Judah, in the south. Favoritism is apparent in Judah's numbers: 74,600 fighting-age men is 11,900 more than the next closest tribe. Also, Judah is to lead the march and is in the position facing the sunrise. A sunrise, of course, is a symbol of hope, birth, newness, and vitality. At least here, Judah represents the strength of Israel.
The First Census of Israel: Numbers 1
It is the first day of the second month of the second year since the Israelites fled Egypt, and God tells Moses to finally take the census God commanded in Exodus. The census counts males that are twenty years old and older - everyone in Israel who is able to go to war.
And, because numbers likes numbers and lists, what follows is a list of helpers from each tribe, eac man the head of his ancestral house:
1. From Reuben, Elizur son of Shedeur.Notice that Levi is left out. This is because the Levites were priests. Therefore to maintain the perfect number 12, two sons of Joseph - Israel's favorite son - are chosen as tribal leaders.
2. From Simeon, Shelumiel son of Zurishaddai.
3. From Judah, Nahshon son of Amminadab.
4. From Issachar, Nethanel son of Zuar.
5. From Zebulun, Eliab son of Helon.
From the sons of Joseph:
6. from Ephraim, Elishama son of Ammihud;
7. from Manasseh, Gamaliel son of Pedahzur.
8. From Benjamin, Abidan son of Gideoni.
9. From Dan, Ahiezer son of Ammishaddai.
10. From Asher, Pagiel son of Ochran.
11. From Gad, Eliasaph son of Deuel.
12. From Naphtali, Ahira son of Enan.
(Num. 1.5-15)
What follows is another list, this one of all twelve tribes being accounted for. There are twelve entries, and each entry follows the same pattern:
The descendants of [son of Israel], their lineage, in their clans, by their ancestral houses, those of them that were numbered, according to the number of names, individually, every male from twenty years old and upwards, everyone able to go to war: those enrolled of the tribe of Simeon were [number].The book of Numbers loves lists, as it turns out. Below I have summed up the results of the census. The tribal names correspond to the names of Israel's sons:
1. Reuben - 46,500
2. Simeon - 59,300
3. Gad - 45,650
4. Judah - 74,600
5. Issachar - 54,400
6. Zebulun - 57,400
7. Ephraim (son of Joseph) - 40,500
8. Manasseh (son of Joseph) - 32,200
9. Benjamin - 35,400
10. Dan - 62,700
11. Asher - 41,500
12. Naphtali - 53,400
The literary purpose of the census is to demonstrate Israel's might by revealing the size of the army that will fight in order to enter the promised land. Note that the census covers those going to war, imbuing this chapter from the beginning with overtones of combat. Ancient censuses, of course, served to determine how many were able to fight. But the placement of the census at the beginning of the book sets the stage for the rest of the book. In total, 603,550 of the Israelites will be able to fight:
"So the whole number of the Israelites, by their ancestral houses, from twenty years old and upward, everyone able to go to war in Israel - their whole number was 603,550. The Levites, however, were not numbered by their ancestral tribe along with them"The exclusion of the Levites is based on the Levites' service of the Lord with the tabernacle. Because they are constantly with the tabernacle, they may not take part in fighting, and therefore are not included in the military census.
(Num. 1.45-47)
The Order of Encampment and Marching: Numbers 2
The Israelites are to camp by tribe, each camp facing the tent of meeting. There shall be three tribes in each cardinal direction, extending out in a cross (no Christian imagery intended) from the tabernacle. Check out the symmetry employed by the biblical author. Two adjacent sides are listed, then the center, then the remaining two adjacent sides:
To the east, listed from the outside going inward to the tent, are Judah, Issachar, and Zebulun.
To the south, listed from the outside going inward to the tent, are Reuben, Simeon, and Gad.
In the center is the tent of meeting, surrounded by the Levites.
To the west, listed from the outside going inward to the tent, are Ephraim, Manasseh, Benjamin.
To the north, listed from the outside going inward to the tent, are Dan, Asher, and Naphtali.
Each side is designated a "regimental encampment" and assigned the name of the outermost tribe. [The eastward camp is Judah, the southward is Reuben, the westward is Ephraim, the northward is Dan.] When marching, the camps shall leave in the following order: Judah, Reuben, Ephraim, Dan. The Levites shall march with the camp in whose quadrant they camped.
The militaristic diction comes to the fore in Numbers 2, and I think it is not just the prejudice of the translators that makes it so. The following phrases caught my attention: regiments, regimental encampments, ensigns (the signs of the tribes), march, set out. The biblical author seems to be setting the Israelites up for battle.
It is clear that the biblical author favored the tribe of Judah, and was probably himself (/themselves) from the kingdom of Judah, in the south. Favoritism is apparent in Judah's numbers: 74,600 fighting-age men is 11,900 more than the next closest tribe. Also, Judah is to lead the march and is in the position facing the sunrise. A sunrise, of course, is a symbol of hope, birth, newness, and vitality. At least here, Judah represents the strength of Israel.
Wednesday, June 30, 2010
Exodus 15.22-17.7
Miracles in the Wilderness
Bitter Water Made Sweet / Bread From Heaven
Bitter Water Made Sweet: Exodus 15.22-27
Moses orders Israel to set out form the Red Sea, and they travel three days into the wilderness of Shur. In the end, it turns out, Moses actually fulfills part of his promise to Pharaoh. However, no sacrifices are made here. Instead, the congregation complains about the bitter water at a place called Marah (which incidentally means "bitterness").
The people complain to Moses about the undrinkable water. Moses, in turn, cries out to God, who shows Moses a piece of wood he should throw into the water to make it sweet.
The Lord makes a "statute and an ordinance" to "put them to the test":
The people make their way to Elim, which must seem something of a paradise, having 12 springs and 70 palm trees. They camp by the water. The two numbers suggest completeness and perfection. Twelve perhaps represents the sons of Israel, thereby encompassing the whole of Israel: there is a spring for each tribe. Seventy or any multiple of seven, represents completeness or perfection. These numbers are not to be taken literally, but they serve to demonstrate continuities within the narrative: 12 palms for 12 tribes, 70 springs for the whole (as in having "wholeness") congregation.
Bread From Heaven: Exodus 16.1-36
The whole congregation again sets out and finds itself in Sin, betwen Elim and Sinai, on the fifteenth day of the second month after they departed from Egypt. As they left on the fifteenth, this means that the Israelites have travelled exactly one month. This will be their seventh stop and their third complaint.
The entire congregation complains that there is no food in the wilderness, whereas in Egypt they had their fill of bread and meat. They go so far as to accuse Moses of plotting to kill them with hunger.
The Lord gives Moses a plan. The Lord will test the Israelites by raining bread from heaven that the Israelites must go and prepare. On the sixth day, they are to collect twice as much, as they cannot do work on the Sabbath and bread will not fall that day. This is an indication that this portion comes from the P-source. The Priestly redactors were very careful to make sure the people written about in the Bible follow the central tenants of religion.
The next verse, however, seems to indicate a different source, with a different command (Ex. 16.6). Moses tells Aaron to tell the Israelites that:
And Moses rebukes the congregation too, saying that their complaint is not directed at Moses and Aaron, but the Lord.
The story then repeats itself, with a twist. Moses tells Aaron to speak to the congregation. Aaron speaks to them facing the wilderness, while behind them the Lord speaks to Moses in a cloud. The Lord then gives moses the commandment of meat and bread that Moses had informed the Israelites about above. The text appears to be out of order - the traditions twisted around one another.
In any case, quails come that evening...and are not mentioned again. Huh.
In the morning there is a layer of dew in the camp, and when it lifts, there is a fine layer of a flaky substance on the ground. It is manna, a substance "like coriander seed, white, and the taste of it was like wafers made with honey" (Ex. 16.31). It melts away with the heat of the day. The Israelites are puzzled at first, but Moses commands them to collect it, one omer per person. They do, and everyone somehow every day ends up with a perfect omer. Some leave it to morning, which is forbidden, and find that it is foul and wormy. Others do not collect two servings on the day before the Sabbath, and go hungry for a day. The manna kept over into the Sabbath, by God's doing, does not become foul overnight.
The people learn from disobeying the rules, but that does not mean God is happy about it. Rather, God sees the people as not obeying his instructions.
In spite of this, the Lord commands Moses that an omer should be kept through the generations, so that future generations may see how the people were fed (for forty years) in the wilderness after being led out of Egypt. Aaron puts an omer of manna in a jar and places it before the (anachronistically placed) covenant for safekeeping.
Oh, wondering what an omer? It's one-tenth of an ephah. Duh. And how much is an ephah, you ask? An ephah is 22 liters. So an omer is 1.1 liters. 1.1 liters is about 4.6 cups. 4.6 cups of manna per person, per day.
Tomorrow: Water from the Rock.
Bitter Water Made Sweet / Bread From Heaven
Bitter Water Made Sweet: Exodus 15.22-27
Moses orders Israel to set out form the Red Sea, and they travel three days into the wilderness of Shur. In the end, it turns out, Moses actually fulfills part of his promise to Pharaoh. However, no sacrifices are made here. Instead, the congregation complains about the bitter water at a place called Marah (which incidentally means "bitterness").
The people complain to Moses about the undrinkable water. Moses, in turn, cries out to God, who shows Moses a piece of wood he should throw into the water to make it sweet.
The Lord makes a "statute and an ordinance" to "put them to the test":
If you will listen carefully to the voice of the Lord your God, and do what is right in his sight, and give heed to his commandments and keep all his statutes, I will not bring upon you any of the diseases that I brought upon the Egyptians; for I am the Lord who heals you.God's people must show their respect to God in order to stay in God's good standing and stay plague-free. This is not a covenant, but a commandment.
(Ex. 25-26)
The people make their way to Elim, which must seem something of a paradise, having 12 springs and 70 palm trees. They camp by the water. The two numbers suggest completeness and perfection. Twelve perhaps represents the sons of Israel, thereby encompassing the whole of Israel: there is a spring for each tribe. Seventy or any multiple of seven, represents completeness or perfection. These numbers are not to be taken literally, but they serve to demonstrate continuities within the narrative: 12 palms for 12 tribes, 70 springs for the whole (as in having "wholeness") congregation.
Bread From Heaven: Exodus 16.1-36
The whole congregation again sets out and finds itself in Sin, betwen Elim and Sinai, on the fifteenth day of the second month after they departed from Egypt. As they left on the fifteenth, this means that the Israelites have travelled exactly one month. This will be their seventh stop and their third complaint.
The entire congregation complains that there is no food in the wilderness, whereas in Egypt they had their fill of bread and meat. They go so far as to accuse Moses of plotting to kill them with hunger.
The Lord gives Moses a plan. The Lord will test the Israelites by raining bread from heaven that the Israelites must go and prepare. On the sixth day, they are to collect twice as much, as they cannot do work on the Sabbath and bread will not fall that day. This is an indication that this portion comes from the P-source. The Priestly redactors were very careful to make sure the people written about in the Bible follow the central tenants of religion.
The next verse, however, seems to indicate a different source, with a different command (Ex. 16.6). Moses tells Aaron to tell the Israelites that:
In the evening you shall know that it was the Lord who brought you out of the land of Egypt, and in the morning you shall see the glory of the Lord, because he has heard your complaining against the Lord. For what are we, that you complain against us?Moses then tells the congregation that the Lord will provide meat in the evening and bread in the morning. Wait a minute. The Lord said nothing before about meat. Where did that come from? A different source, obviously.
(Ex. 15.6-7)
And Moses rebukes the congregation too, saying that their complaint is not directed at Moses and Aaron, but the Lord.
The story then repeats itself, with a twist. Moses tells Aaron to speak to the congregation. Aaron speaks to them facing the wilderness, while behind them the Lord speaks to Moses in a cloud. The Lord then gives moses the commandment of meat and bread that Moses had informed the Israelites about above. The text appears to be out of order - the traditions twisted around one another.
In any case, quails come that evening...and are not mentioned again. Huh.
In the morning there is a layer of dew in the camp, and when it lifts, there is a fine layer of a flaky substance on the ground. It is manna, a substance "like coriander seed, white, and the taste of it was like wafers made with honey" (Ex. 16.31). It melts away with the heat of the day. The Israelites are puzzled at first, but Moses commands them to collect it, one omer per person. They do, and everyone somehow every day ends up with a perfect omer. Some leave it to morning, which is forbidden, and find that it is foul and wormy. Others do not collect two servings on the day before the Sabbath, and go hungry for a day. The manna kept over into the Sabbath, by God's doing, does not become foul overnight.
The people learn from disobeying the rules, but that does not mean God is happy about it. Rather, God sees the people as not obeying his instructions.
In spite of this, the Lord commands Moses that an omer should be kept through the generations, so that future generations may see how the people were fed (for forty years) in the wilderness after being led out of Egypt. Aaron puts an omer of manna in a jar and places it before the (anachronistically placed) covenant for safekeeping.
Oh, wondering what an omer? It's one-tenth of an ephah. Duh. And how much is an ephah, you ask? An ephah is 22 liters. So an omer is 1.1 liters. 1.1 liters is about 4.6 cups. 4.6 cups of manna per person, per day.
Tomorrow: Water from the Rock.
Saturday, June 12, 2010
Genesis 42.1-38
Joseph’s Brothers Go to Egypt / Joseph’s Brothers Return to Canaan
Joseph’s Brothers Go to Egypt: Genesis 42.1-25
When last we left our hero, there was a severe famine in the land, but Joseph, appointed overseer of the land and guided by an interpretation of Pharaoh’s dreams, wisely stockpiled grain before the famine. Now Egypt is a food bank for the area.
Jacob learns that there is grain in Egypt, and sends ten of his sons down to Egypt to buy grain. Benjamin stays behind. As Rachel’s only “remaining” son, he serves as a surrogate for Joseph, and Jacob wants to keep him from harm.
Joseph’s brothers arrive in Egypt and bow before Joseph, fulfilling the dream Joseph had of their sheaves of grain bowing down before his (see Gen. 37). The brothers do not recognize Joseph, and who would expect him to be in that position anyway? But Joseph recognizes them, and deals with them harshly, perhaps seeking retribution for the transaction that occurred years ago.
Here is the conversation, featuring only the quotations, with the narration removed. This portion relies so much on dialogue that it is perfectly comprehensible without narration.
Joseph: “Where do you come from?”
Brothers: “From the land of Canaan, to buy food.”
Joseph: “You are spies; you have come to see the nakedness of the land!”
Brothers: “No, my lord; your servants have come to buy food. We are all sons of one man; we are honest men; your servants have never been spies.”
Joseph: “No, you have come to see the nakedness of the land!”
Brothers: “We, your servants, are twelve brothers, the sons of a certain man in the land of Canaan; the youngest, however, is now with our father, and one is no more.”
Joseph: “It is just as I have said to you; you are spies! Here is how you shall be tested: as Pharaoh lives, you shall not leave this place unless your youngest brother comes here! Let one of you go and bring your brother, while the rest of you remain in prison, in order that your words may be tested, whether there is truth in you; or else, as Pharaoh lives, surely you are spies.”
The brothers are imprisoned for three days.
Check this out:
The brothers’ answers go from vague to specific. First they state their homeland and purpose. Next they state their subservience and purpose and family. Finally they state their subservience and state the specifics of their family. Joseph gets them to open up more and more. Each answer from the brothers intensifies the understanding of the previous one. Joseph, on the other hand, splits his initial accusation as a way to answer his brothers. First he accuses them of being spies who have come to see the nakedness of the land. Next, he accuses his brothers only of coming to see the nakedness of the land. Finally, he accuses them of being only spies. The brothers follow a logical pattern from broad to specific, whereas Joseph starts broad, and applies each part of his accusation separately in response to his brothers.
On the third day, Joseph has a change of heart, “for I fear God” (Gen. 42.18) (Not On or any other Egyptian god, but God himself). Nine of the brothers are allowed to return home with grain, but one is to remain imprisoned until the nine brothers return with Benjamin. The other brothers realize, “Alas, we are paying the penalty for what we did to our brother; we saw his anguish when he pleaded with us, but we would not listen. That is why this anguish is upon us” (Gen. 42.21). Reuben, of course, points out that he told his brothers not to sell Joseph.
Joseph’s retribution is indeed appropriate, forcing his brothers to leave behind one of themselves, just as they left him.
That irony is compounded by another irony; it is not until verse 23 that the text mentions Joseph is speaking through an interpreter. This whole time Joseph has been able to understand his brothers in his native tongue, but has not been able to speak with them. Joseph is so overcome he turns away and weeps, but when he returns he binds Simeon and puts him in prison.
Joseph has his brothers’ sacks filled with grain, and sneaks their money back into their bags.
Joseph’s Brothers Return to Canaan: Genesis 42.26-38
One of the brothers opens his sack to feed his donkey, and finds his money inside. Uh-oh. Now maybe the man who dealt so harshly with them will accuse them of stealing as well. “What is this that God has done to us?” they wonder (Gen. 42.28).
The brothers get back and tell Jacob of everything that has happened. As they empty their sacks, each discovers the money that Joseph slipped back into the sacks. Wait, hasn’t this already happened? Yes. That’s the E-source reiterating the early J-source story.
Jacob does not take the news so well: “I am the one you have bereaved of children: Joseph is no more, and Simeon is no more, and now you would take Benjamin. All this has happened to me!” (Gen. 42.36). Reuben offers that Jacob may kill Reuben’s two sons if he does not bring Simeon back. Essentially he is guaranteeing the return of Jacob’s son with two of Jacob’s grandsons. Think about that for a minute.
In any case, the pitiable Jacob refuses to let Benjamin return, as he is the last remaining son of Rachel. “If harm should come to him on the journey that you are to make, you would bring down my gray hairs with sorrow to Sheol” (Gen. 42.38). This is the second time he has made such a remark regarding mourning a son of Rachel.
Tomorrow: Back to Egypt.
Monday, June 7, 2010
Genesis 37.1-36
Joseph’s Dreams: Genesis 37.1-11
Jacob settles in Canaan, land of his father, and lives there as an alien. This is the story of his family.
Seventeen-year-old Joseph shepherds flocks with his brothers, and one day brings back a bad report of them. Israel loves his youngest son Joseph more than any of his other children, and made him a long robe with sleeves (or if you’re reading the Greek translation, a coat of many colors). This causes some tension among the other brothers, who can no longer speak peaceable with him.
Favorite sons are a common theme in Genesis: Isaac is favored by Sarah over Ishmael, Esau is favored by Isaac and Jacob by Rebekah. Joseph is the youngest son of the favorite wife of Israel.
Surely it does not help that Joseph has prophetic dreams. In one he and his brothers are binding sheaves (of grain) in the field when Joseph’s sheaf rises and stands upright. The other sheaves gather around the standing sheaf and bow down to it. Joseph’s brothers do not care for this dream and the implication that he is greater than them. In another dream Joseph sees the son, the moon, and eleven stars bowing down to him. Neither Joseph’s sons nor his father care for this dream either – especially with the obvious symbolism. Israel rebukes his son: “What kind of dream is this that you have had? Shall we indeed come, I and your mother and your brothers, and bow to the ground before you?” (Gen. 37.10). The other brothers are jealous, but Israel stores the information in the back of his mind.
Note that Rachel appears to be alive in this narrative, represented by the moon.
Joseph Sold by His Brothers: Genesis 37.12-36
Though Joseph supposedly shepherds flocks, he is at home with his father. Israel tells Joseph to go to Hebron to check up on his brothers, who are with the flocks.
A man find Joseph wandering in the fields and directs him to Dothan, where his brothers are. The brothers see Joseph approaching, and say to one another, “Here comes this dreamer. Come now, let us kill him and throw him into one of the pits; then we shall say that a wild animal has devoured him, and we shall see what will become of his dreams” (Gen. 37.19-20). Ironically, the brothers will in fact see what will become of his dreams as a direct result of throwing him in the pit. Only they will not kill him. Reuben suggests simply throwing Joseph in with the intention of rescuing him later. The other brothers agree. They strip Joseph of his robe and throw him into a pit. That task finished, they sit down to eat.
A caravan of Ishmaelites comes near, headed for Egypt. Judah suggests that rather than killing Joseph, they should sell him to the Ishmaelites. He is, after all, their own blood and flesh. When the Midianite traders (the composite narrative creates the effect that the Ishmaelite caravan transforms into Midianite traders) reach the brothers, they pull Joseph out of the pit, selling him to the Ishmaelites (who have changed back, apparently) for twenty pieces of silver.
Apparently Reuben is away during this, as when he returns to the pit he tears his clothes in grief. The brothers then dip Joseph’s robe in the blood of a slaughtered goat to create evidence of Joseph’s death. They give it to Jacob/Israel, who tears his garments and puts on sackcloth, traditional signs of mourning. He mourns his son many days and cannot be comforted: “No, I shall go down to Sheol to my son, mourning” (Gen. 37.35). Meanwhile the Midianites (or whoever they are) sell Joseph to Potiphar, one of Pharaoh’s officials.
A Tale of Two Texts
If you read through the biblical text, you can easily see the interplay between the two sources. Joseph has two defenders and is taken by two different groups of people. The interweaving of the narratives, however, creates a cohesive whole, much like the flood story, though with fewer contradictions.
What is Sheol, exactly?
This reference to Sheol is the first reference to any idea of hell in the bible. Sheol is one ancient understanding of the afterlife. It’s pretty much just a long sleep with everyone else who has ever died, which isn’t much fun, because you’re sleeping. But it’s not horrible torture, either, because you’re not being horribly tortured. At this stage, the heavens is where God resides, a place inaccessible to humans (with the exception, perhaps, of Enoch). Every dead person, though, goes to reside in Sheol after death. So Joseph would in fact be joined by his father, but there would be no emotional reconnection. The identification of Sheol with a pit (etymologically) gives a tinge of irony to the story, for a pir is exactly where Israel’s son has been thrown.
Friday, June 4, 2010
Genesis 30.25-32.2
Lessons in Lamb Breeding: Genesis 30.25-43
This narrative again emphasizes Jacob’s trickery, though the audience can certainly sympathize.
Jacob decides he has lived with Laban long enough and asks to leave. But Laban has learned by divination that he is blessed because of Jacob. Why would Laban therefore let him go? But Laban does relent a little, asking what Jacob’s wages should be.
Jacob replies that he has greatly increased Laban’s cattle – a blessing of the Lord - but now Jacob wants to leave and wonders how he should provide for his household. Jacob proposes a deal. Jacob will keep Laban’s flock, but will receive every speckled and spotted sheep and goat and every black lamb. Laban agrees to the terms – and promptly removes the speckled and spotted goats and black lambs. He gives these to his sons and moves a three-day’s journey from Jacob.
Jacob is not one to be out-tricked. He takes rods of poplar and almond and plane, and peels white streaks into them. He puts these in front of the troughs where the flocks drink and breed. The flocks, in turn, produce striped, speckled and spotted young. (It is well known that sheep and goats, when breeding, will have a sympathetic response to anything they see. This is how we get steel wool. Look it up.) But Jacob only does this for the stronger animals, which represents one of the earliest portrayals of genetics. Laban gets weak flocks, of course. The joke is on him!
Jacob Escapes Laban: Genesis 31.1-21
Jacob is rich with livestock and slaves, the livestock won at Laban’s expense and twenty years of servitude, during which time his wages changed ten times. Apparently Jacob’s wage changed depending on whether the livestock were predominantly striped or speckled. Go figure.
Jacob hears the sons of Laban talking angrily about his riches, and notices Laban treating him differently. Just like Esau, the tricked is plotting vengeance on the trickster. The Lord tells Jacob to return to the land of his ancestors, which probably seems like a great idea to him. First, though, Jacob tells his plan to his wives, letting them know about a dream he had about mating goats. God comes to Jacob in the dream and tells him to return to the land of his birth.
Rachel and Leah fully support Jacob’s plans, for they are now treated like foreigners in their own father’s house. Also, all the property that God has taken from their father is now in their possession. Except for the household gods, which Rachel steals while her father is off shearing sheep - more on that later.
So Jacob puts his wives and children on camels and sends them away with livestock for Canaan (Gen. 31.18) and/or Gilead (Gen. 31.21). He has the full blessing of God, a very good thing to travel with.
Laban Overtakes Jacob: Genesis 31.22-42
Three days later Laban is told that his son-in-law has fled. He pursues him for seven days into the hill country of Gilead. But God warns Laban in a dream to “Take heed that you say not a word to Jacob, either good or bad” (Gen. 31.24). Laban overtakes Jacob and promptly speaks.
Laban attacks Jacob verbally for running off without a word, saying that his send-off would have been great. And why did Jacob steal Laban’s gods, then? These “gods” are household deities or relatives that have passed away – not the entity known as Lord or God.
Jacob responds that he was afraid. He thought Laban would take away Rachel and Leah. But he promises that the person who has the gods shall not live. Uh-oh, Rachel.
So Laban goes into Jacob’s tent, finding nothing. He then enters Rachel’s tent – a womanly sphere – and finds himself utterly inept. Rachel sits atop a saddlebag that contains the idols and foils her father with femininity: “Let not my lord be angry that I cannot rise before you, for the way of the woman is upon me” (Gen. 31.35).
Jacob soundly rebukes the empty-handed Laban. He has “falsely” accused Jacob, who has cared so well for Laban’s flocks. None miscarried, Jacob did not eat the rams, and furthermore he bore the loss when a beast took an animal. Shepherding is no picnic, either. It is hot in the day and cold at night. And what has Laban done for him? “These twenty years I have been in your house; I served you fourteen years for your two daughters, and six years for your flock, and you have changed my wage ten times” (Gen. 31.41). And what has carried Jacob through? God.
The Covenant: Genesis 31.43-32.2
Laban’s reply demonstrates his possessiveness: “The daughters are my daughters, the children are my children, the flocks are my flocks, and all that you see is mine” (Gen. 31.43). But he relents, and calls for a covenant.
What follows is an interweaving of the J and E narratives.
Jacob erects a pillar // then calls for his kinsfolk to erect a cairn. They sit and eat. Laban names the place Jegar-sahadutha and Jacob Galeed. Both terms mean “The heap of Witness,” but Jacob’s Hebrew term takes precedence over Laban’s Aramaic term. This naming device reinforces the importance of the Hebrew language and exemplifies the tension between the Arameans and Hebrews. Either the rock pile // or the pillar is then called Mizpah, meaning “watch post.”
A twin covenant is made. The first calls for the good treatment of Laban’s daughters. Joseph is to take no other wives. God serves as witness to this. The second covenant states that neither will cross the pillar and the heap to cause harm to the other. The pillar and heap serve as witnesses, and God as the judge. All covenants have two parts: an agreement and a sign. Here the agreements differ (because of the separate sources) but the sign of the pillar (and cairn) remain the same.
Jacob offers a sacrifice and they eat bread, symbolizing communion, or at least understanding, between the two parties. In the morning Laban kisses and blesses his grandchildren and daughters before heading home.
Jacob goes on his way and finds angels. When Jacob sees them he declares “This is God’s camp!” and names the place Mahanaim (“two camps”).
Up tomorrow: Ever wrestled with religion? How about God personified?
Sunday, May 30, 2010
Genesis 20.1-23.20
Sister Act 2: Back in the Habit / Isaac's Birth / Hagar and Ishmael in the Wilderness (Redux) / Covenant Between Abraham and Abimelech / The Near Sacrifice of Isaac / The Children of Nahor / Sarah's Death and Burial
"Let's do some E!"
Sister Act 2: Back in the Habit: Genesis 20.1-18
Chapter 20 is the first continuous E-source narrative in the bible, and is another example of the "matriarch=sister trick" tale first found in Genesis 12.10-20.
Abraham again journeys toward the Negeb, this time settling between Kadesh and Shur. While living in Gerar, Abraham tells King Abimelech that Sarah is his sister. Naturally, King Abimelech sends for Sarah. God confronts Abimelech in a dream, telling him he is about to die for taking Sarah. Abimelech defends himself, asking, like Abraham, if God will destroy an innocent people. Says Abimelech, "Did [Abraham] not himself say to me, 'She is my sister'? And she herself said, 'He is my brother.' I did this in the integrity of my heart and the innocence of my hands" (Gen. 20.5). (Though Sarah does not speak in the narrative, it is possible she actually did claim Abraham as her brother.)
God reveals his bluff, and furthermore claims his control over the situation:
Yes, I know that you did this in the integrity of your heart; furthermore it was I who kept you from sinning against me. Therefore I did not let you touch her. Now then, return the man's wife; for he is a prophet, and he will pray for you and you shall live. But if you do not restore her, know that you shall surely die, you and all that are yours.(Gen. 20.6-7)
In the morning Abimelech calls his servants and Abraham together. He asks why Abraham would act as he did. Abraham answers:
I did it because I thought, There is no fear of God at all in this place, and they will kill me because of my wife. Besides, she is indeed my sister, the daughter of my father but not the daughter of my mother; and she became my wife. And when God caused me to wander from my father's house, I said to her, 'This is the kindness you must do me: at every place to which we come, say of me, He is my brother.(Gen. 20.11-13).
As in his dealing with Pharaoh in Genesis 12, Abraham receives sheep and oxen as well as male and female slaves. He also receives Abimelech's land and a thousand pieces of silver.
For this Abraham prays to God, "and God healed Abimelech, and also healed his wife and female slaves so that they bore children. For the Lord had closed fast all the wombs of the house of Abimelech's because of Sarah, Abraham's wife.
Now, without getting crass, it appears that Abimelech was suffering a sexual problem, which. Hence God's earlier comment, "furthermore it was I who kept you from sinning against me." Quite tactfully put.
Ostensibly Sarah is beautiful and not old when King Abimelech takes her. This story does not fit chronologically in the narrative, then, and it is of note that Abraham and Sarah both are referred to names that they receive in the P narrative at ages ninety-nine and ninety, respectively. This might be an indication that in the E source, Abraham and Sarah always had these names. If that is the case, this alternative version of the story might have served as a parallel telling of roughly the same period of Abraham and Sarah's life.
Why insert it here? Possible the land that Abraham receives. It also plays with the idea of barrenness that pervades the Abraham narrative. Land and children are the two keys to the covenant.
Isaac's Birth: Genesis 21.1-7
Sarah conceives a son who is named Isaac. He is circumcised when he is eight days old, as commanded. There is more laughter. Sarah says, "God has brought laughter for me; everyone who hears will laugh with me" (Gen. 21.6) This is fitting, as Isaac's name means "he laughs" and laughter typifies the Abrahamic narrative.
Hagar and Ishmael in the Wilderness (Redux): Genesis 21.8-21
Genesis 21.8-21 is another E-source retelling of the J story of Genesis 16. This version, like Genesis 20, has a strange chronology, as Hagar's son, whose name is not given, is seemingly about the same age as Isaac, not fourteen as he would be in the P-source.
Isaac grows and is weaned. Abraham makes a great feast the day Isaac is weaned. Sarah sees Hagar's son playing with Isaac and becomes angry. She demands that Abraham casts Hagar and her son out, which distresses Abraham. God tells Abraham to go with it; Isaac is the line of offspring that will carry Abraham's name. God will however still make a nation of the other son's descendants, who still have Abraham's blood.
Abraham sends Hagar off with bread and a skin of water. When the water is gone, she hides her son under bushes, not wanting to see him die. God hears her son crying and the angel of God comes to Hagar. The angel tells Hagar not to worry, and that a great nation will come of her son. When God opens Hagar's eyes, she sees a well (a connection with the J story).
The boy grows up in the wilderness and becomes an expert with the bow. His mother finds a wife for him in Egypt, her home land.
Covenant Between Abraham and Abimelech: Genesis 21.22-34
More E narrative.
Abimelech recognizes that Abraham, an alien in his land, is protected by God. He asks for Abraham to be open with him.
Abraham complains about a well of water that Abimelech's men seized. Abimelech justifies himself, perhaps fearful of Abraham's God: "I do not know who has done this; you did not tell me, and I have not heard of it until today" (Gen. 21.26). Abraham and Abimelech deal with the problem by making a covenant. Abraham gives sheep and oxen to Abimelech, setting aside seven ewe lambs so that Abimelech will act as a witness that Abraham dug the well. The place is therefore called Beer-sheba (well of seven or well of the oath). The covenant sworn, Abimelech returns to the land of the Philistines. Abraham plants a tamarisk tree there and calls on the name of the Lord, El Olam. This is likely an epithet for the Canaanite high God El. Here Abraham applies it to his God, who has granted him this foreign land. Just as it is an old land with a new people living in it, the name El Olam is an old title with a new god it applies to.
The Near Sacrifice of Isaac: Genesis 22.1-19
My apologies if I just spoiled the ending.
Still more E narrative!
God decides to test Abraham: "He said to him, 'Abraham!' And he said, 'Here I am'" (Gen. 22.1). God tells Abraham to takes his only son Isaac to Moriah, to sacrifice him as a burnt offering. Normally this is something reserved for animals; Hebrew religion does not condone human sacrifice.
Abraham sets out the next morning with a donkey, two men, Isaac, and the wood. On the third day Abraham leaves the two men and donkey, loads up his son Isaac with wood, and continues on carrying the knife and fire. What follows is a scene full of irony and drama. Like God, Isaac calls out to his father, "Father!" Abraham answers, "Here I am, my son" (Gen. 22.7). Isaac asks where the lamb is for the sacrifice. Abraham, knowing his son is to die, nevertheless correctly answers, "God himself will provide the lamb for the burnt offering, my son" (Gen. 22.8). The two walk on.
They come to the place God has appointed and Abraham builds an altar and lays the wood. He bounds his son and places him on the wood. He is about to kill his son with the knife when the angel of the Lord calls for him to stop: "Abraham, Abraham!" He answers, "Here I am." The angel of the Lord says, "Do not lay you hand on the boy or do anything to him; for now I know that you fear God, since you have not withheld your son, your only son, from me" (Gen. 22.12).
Abraham sees a ram caught in a thicket and offers it instead. Abraham names the place, "'The Lord will provide'; as it is said to this day, 'On the mount of the Lord it shall be provided'" (Gen. 22.14).
There is a final promise of offspring. Abraham returns to the men and they return to Beer-sheba
Anyone know what mount this is? Anybody? Does the Temple Mount ring a bell? How about al-Haram ash-Sharif, the Noble Sanctuary?
Is this where God gathered the dust for Adam? Where Abraham bound Isaac? The site of Muhammad's Night Journey? The site of the Third Temple?
This much is true: It was the sight of the two Temples of Jerusalem. It is the current location of the Western Wall, Dome of the Rock, and Al-Aqsa Mosque. Not familiar with these terms? Tread carefully. Biased information and outright fabrications about the site abound.
The Children of Nahor: Genesis 22.20-24
Today's genealogy in burgundy!
Sarah's Death and Burial: Genesis 23.1-20
Sarah dies at the age of 127 in Hebron, a foreign land. Mourning the death of his wife, Abraham asks the Hittites for property so that he might bury his wife. The answer that he may choose his place. But Abraham wishes to own the land, presumably so that nothing will happen to it. What follows is a fantastic scene of diplomacy. Abraham desires Ephron's property. Ephron, overhearing him, offers it for free, which is of course an empty gesture.The real reason he does not give a price is because he does not want a foreigner buried on his land. Abraham offers to pay full price, though not naming it, as he probably does not know what the full price is. Ephron slyly asks an exorbitant price: "My lord, listen to me; a piece of land worth four hundred shekels of silver - what is that between you and me? Bury your dead" (Gen. 23.15). Abraham immediately agrees to the price, seeing past the speech to the real meaning.
Sarah is buried facing Mamre/Hebron in a cave of the field of Machpeleah, in the land of Canaan
Tomorrow: Freudian tales from Genesis.
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